horticulture

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Originally garden cultivation, this now refers to the intensive production of fruit, vegetables, and ornamental plants.

Horticulture, literally garden culture, is a part of crop agriculture that also includes agronomy and forestry. By tradition, horticulture deals with garden crops such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, culinary herbs and spices, beverage crops, and medicinals, as well as ornamental plants. Agronomy is involved with grains, pasture grasses and forages, oilseeds, fiber crops, and industrial crops such as sugarcane, while forestry is involved with trees grown for timber and fiber as well as the incidental wildlife. The edible horticultural crops are used entirely as human food and are often utilized in the living state and thus highly perishable. In contrast, edible agronomic crops are often utilized in the nonliving state, are highly processed, are often used for animal feed, and usually contain a high percentage of dry matter. The precise distinction between horticultural and agronomic crops is traditional. In general, horticultural crops are intensively cultivated and warrant a large input of capital, labor, and technology per unit area of land, but in modern agriculture, horticultural crops may be extensively grown while many agronomic crops are now intensively cultivated. Many crops are claimed by more than one discipline. Horticulture is practiced in large agricultural operations, in small farm enterprises, and in home gardens.

Horticultural Arts

Horticulture is associated with a number of intensive practices that collectively make up the horticultural arts. These include various propagation techniques incorporating special plant structures such as bulbs, corms, or runners; the use of layers or cuttings; budding and grafting; and micropropagation involving tissue culture. Cultural practices include soil preparation, direct planting or transplanting; fertilization; weed, disease, and pest control; training and pruning; the use of controlled environments such as greenhouses or plastic tunnels; applications of chemical growth regulators; various harvest and handling methods; and various postharvest treatments to extend shelf life. Other practices associated with horticulture are breeding and genetic techniques for crop improvement, marketing methods, and food processing. Ornamental horticulture, not considered here, includes added practices associated with landscape architecture and the floral arts. While horticulture is an ancient art with many of its practices empirically derived, present-day horticultural arts are intimately associated with science, so that modern horticultural science is one of the most advanced parts of agriculture. Recently some horticultural growers have attempted to reduce or even eliminate reliance on inorganic fertilizers and pesticides through the incorporation of ecologically based practices (integrated crop management).

Horticultural Food Crops

Horticultural food crops include an enormous array of species that are grouped in various ways.

Fruits. Fruits of woody perennial plants have long been prized for sources of refreshment, for their delightful flavors and aromas, and as nourishing foods. Fruit crops can be defined as temperate, subtropical, and tropical depending on their temperature requirements. Temperate fruits are deciduous (drop their leaves in the cold period) and undergo dormancy requiring a certain amount of low temperatures (chilling period) before growth is resumed in the spring. Subtropical fruits require a very short chilling period. Tropical fruits are usually evergreen and are extremely cold-sensitive. Within these groupings fruit crops are usually grouped by taxonomic affinity. The temperate fruits include the pome fruits (apple, pear, quince, medlar), stone fruits (apricot, cherry, peach and its smooth-skin variant the nectarine, and plum), vine fruits (grape and kiwifruit), and small or bush fruits (strawberry; blueberry, cranberry, and lingonberry; brambles such as blackberry, raspberry, and various hybrids; currants and gooseberries). The subtropical fruits include citrus (citron, grapefruit, the tropical pomelo, sweet orange, lemon, lime, mandarins, and various hybrids such as the tangor or tangelo); and fruits associated with Mediterranean climates (avocado, cactus pear, carob, fig, loquat, persimmon, pomegranate). There are hundreds of tropical fruits, of which the most important are banana and plantain, mango, papaya, and pineapple, but there are hundreds of others with regional interest, including acerola, akee, carambola, cherimoya, durian, guava, litchi, mangosteen, passion fruit, rambutan, sapodilla, and soursop.

Nuts. The important tree nuts that enter into international trade include almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, chestnuts, hazelnuts, macadamias, pistachios, pecans and hickories, and walnuts.

Beverage crops. Beverage crops include the subtropical crops—coffee, tea, and maté—and the tropical cacao used for cocoa and the confection chocolate.

Vegetables. Vegetables are typically herbaceous (softstemmed) plants in which various parts are used as food, including roots, tubers, leaves, fruit, or seed. There are various groupings based on the part consumed and taxonomic affinity. Vegetables include the root crops (beet, carrot, cassava, celeriac, dasheen, horseradish, parsnip, potato, salsify, turnip, radish, rutabaga, and sweet potato, as well as some little-known Andean tubers such as oca, mashua or anu, and ulluco, and root crops such as arracacha, maca, and yacon); bulb or corm crops including the pungent alliums (chive, garlic, leek, onion, shallots, and chive); salad or leafy crops (arugula or rocket, celery, chicory, cress, endive, lettuce, parsley); cole crops or crucifers (cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, Chinese cabbage, and various Asian types such as bok choy); potherbs or greens (chard, collards, dandelion, celeriac, kale, mustard, orach, spinach, New Zealand spinach); solanaceous fruits (eggplant, sweet and hot peppers, tomato and husk tomato), cucurbits, also known as melon or vine crops (chayote, cucumber, muskmelon, pumpkin, squash, watermelon); legumes or pulse crops in which the seed is consumed (adzuki bean, broad bean, chickpea, common bean, cowpea, lima bean, mung bean, rice beans, tepary bean, urdbean, garden pea, and pigeon pea). Some vegetables are perennial (artichoke, asparagus, Jerusalem artichoke, rhubarb, sea kale). Some agronomic crops are consumed as a vegetable in various stages, and these types are included as horticultural crops. Examples include sweet corn (the immature ears of a sweet type of maize), immature vegetable soybean or edamame, and the young leaves of amaranth.

Culinary herbs and spices. Aromatic plants used for culinary purposes are called herbs when they are temperate species and spices when they are tropical. Examples include allspice, anise, basil, capsicums, caraway, cardamom, cinnamon, chervil, clove, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, funugreek, garlic, ginger, laurel, marjoram, mint, mustard, nutmeg and mace, onion, organum, parsley, pepper, poppy seed, rosemary, saffron, sage, savory, sesame, star anise, tarragon, thyme, and turmeric.

Horticultural Societies

The field of horticulture has a great many organizations and societies devoted to all phases of horticulture, including amateurs and fanciers, growers and handlers, researchers, and academics. There are plant societies devoted to individual or groups of crops, trade organizations devoted to the production and marketing of individual horticultural crops, and scientific societies devoted to scientific research. In the United States, the principal society devoted to the science of horticulture is the American Society for Horticultural Science (founded 1903) with offices in Alexandria, Virginia. The society publishes three scholarly journals as well as books, and conducts annual meetings. Examples of other scientific societies in the United States include the American Pomological Society, devoted to fruits and nuts, and the American Potato Society. Growers of horticultural crops are also organized in state societies. Many countries have a national scientific society devoted to horticulture. The International Society for Horticultural Science located in Leuven, Belgium, sponsors international horticultural congresses every four years.

Horticultural Education

Horticulture is a recognized part of the curricula in agriculture worldwide. In the United States many land grant universities have horticulture departments devoted to undergraduate education leading to the B.S. degree. Most of these departments provide advanced training leading to the M.S. and Ph.D. degree. However, since the 1990s there has been a trend for horticulture and agronomy departments to combine into either a Crop Science or Plant Science department. A number of schools give two-year programs leading to associate degrees.

Crop Propagation

Horticultural crops are multiplied sexually (seed propagation) or asexually (clonal or vegetative propagation). Many vegetables and herbaceous (soft-stemmed) ornamentals are seed-propagated (beans, tomato, petunia). However, some seed is produced by nonsexual means (apomixis—bluegrass, many citrus, mango), and plants produced by this type of seed are considered vegetatively or clonally propagated. Clonal propagation occurs naturally in many horticultural crops through special vegetative structures such as the tubers of potato, the runners of strawberry, the cloves (corms) of garlic, or the bulbs of tulip. Clonal propagation can be achieved by cuttings, where pieces of the plant regenerate missing parts. Thus, shoot cuttings regenerate roots (grape), root cuttings regenerate shoots (sweet potato), and leaf cuttings regenerate shoots and roots (African violet). Most fruit crops are propagated using grafting techniques where plants are physically joined together, in which the combination of parts achieves physical union through tissue regeneration to grow as a single plant. The part of the combination that provides the root is called the stock; the added piece is called the scion. When the scion consists of a single bud only, the process is referred to as budding. A modern form of vegetatative propagation is called micropropagation and involves tissue culture—the aseptic growth of cells, tissues, or organs in artificial media.

This technique permits very rapid propagation and is widely used for many foliage plants. It is commonly used to produce disease-free stock of strawberry, which are later propagated in the field by runners.

Plant Domestication

The greatest advances in horticulture, the selection and domestication of our useful crops, were made in prehistory by farmers unknown and unsung. The basic techniques of horticulture were well established by ancient cultures in antiquity (5000 to 1500 years ago). In fact, a complete record of horticulture practices is illustrated in the tomb artwork of ancient Egypt. The horticultural technology of antiquity includes basic propagation techniques (seed handling, grafting, use of cuttings); planting and cultivation (plowing, seed bed preparation, weeding), irrigation technology involving water storage, lifting, and channeling; storage technology such as granaries; fertilization and crop rotation; plant selection; basic food technology (fermentation technology in bread-and winemaking, drying, and pickling), and even the beginning of protected culture (the Romans had a primitive greenhouse using mica for cucumber forcing).

The Morrill Acts

The land-grant universities trace their origins to the Morrill Act signed by Abraham Lincoln in 1862, a famous piece of legislation sponsored by Justin Smith Morrill of Massachusetts. Monies from the sale of public lands (30,000 acres for each of its Senate and House members) were to be used as a trust fund to endow a college where practical education in agriculture and engineering would be emphasized. The Agricultural Experiment Stations associated with the land-grant colleges trace to legislation (Hatch Act of 1887) sponsored by William H. Hatch of Missouri. In 1890, the Second Morrill Act was passed and provided direct annual appropriations and forbade racial discrimination in admission to colleges receiving the funds. States were allowed to escape this provision if separate institutions were maintained and a number of the "1890 colleges" in various states open to African Americans became known as "black colleges."

Bibliography

Bailey, L. H. 1914. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. New York: Macmillan, 1914.

Bailey, L. H., Ethel Zoe Bailey, and the Staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan, 1976.

Brewster, James L. Onions and Other Vegetable Alliums. New York: CABI, 1994.

Brickell, Christopher, and David Joyce. The American Horticultural Society Pruning and Training. New York: DK Publishing, 1996.

Davidson, Harold, Roy Mecklenburg, and Curtis Peterson. Nursery Management: Administration and Culture. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2000.

Davies, Frederick S., and L. Gene Albrigo. Citrus. New York: CABI, 1994.

Decoteau, Dennis R. Vegetable Crops. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2000.

Dole, John M., and Harold F. Wilkins. Floriculture: Principles and Species. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1999.

Everett, Thomas H., ed. The New York Botanical Garden Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horticulture. New York: Garland, 1981.

Galleta, Gene J., David Glenn Himelrick, and Lynda E. Chandler. Small Fruit Crop Management. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990.

Harris, Richard Wilson, James R. Clark, and Nelda P. Matheny. Arboriculture: Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1999.

Hartmann, Hudson T., et al. Plant Propagation: Principles andPractices. 6th ed. Upper Saddle, River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1997.

Huxley, Anthony, ed. The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening. New York: Grove's Dictionaries, 1999.

Janick, Jules. Horticultural Reviews. New York: Wiley, 1983 to present.

Janick, Jules. Horticultural Science. 4th ed. New York: Freeman, 1986.

Janick, Jules, et al. Plant Science: An Introduction to World Crops. 3d ed. San Francisco: Freeman, 1981.

Morton, Julia Frances. Fruits of Warm Climates. Edited by Curtis F. Dowling. Miami, Fla., and Winterville, N.C.: Morton, 1987.

Nakasone, Henry Y., and Robert E. Paull. Tropical Fruits. New York: CABI, 1998.

Parry, John W. Spices: Morphology, Histology, Chemistry. 2nd ed. 2 vols. New York: Chemical Publishing, 1969.

Robinson, Richard W. Cucurbits. New York: CABI, 1997.

Vaughan, J. G., and Catherine A. Geissler. The New Oxford Book of Food Plants. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Westwood, Melvin N. Temperate-Zone Pomology: Physiology andCulture. 3d ed. Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, 1993.

K. C. Willson. Coffee, Cocoa and Tea. New York: CABI, 1999.

—Jules Janick

The cultivation of plants for ornament or food.

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The science of cultivating garden plants.

• Business and Science of Agriculture - horticulture: cultivation of fruits, vegetables, shrubs, and herbaceous and ornamental trees and plants
• Practice, Tools, and Techniques - horticulture: science and art of growing plants

Fruit and Vegetable Market

Vertical Garden

Horticulture produce and health

Horticulture is the science, art, technology and business involved in intensive plant cultivation for human use. It is practiced from the individual level in a garden up to the activities of a multinational corporation. It is very diverse in its activities, incorporating plants for food (fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, culinary herbs) and non-food crops (flowers, trees and shrubs, turf-grass, hops, grapes, medicinal herbs). It also includes related services in plant conservation, landscape restoration, landscape and garden design/construction/maintenance, horticultural therapy, and much more. This wide range of food, medicinal, environmental, and social products and services are all fundamental to developing and maintaining human health and well-being. ^[1]

Horticulturist apply the knowledge, skills, and technologies used to grow intensively produced plants for human food and non-food uses and for personal or social needs. Their work involves plant propagation and cultivation with the aim of improving plant growth, yields, quality, nutritional value, and resistance to insects, diseases, and environmental stresses. They work as gardeners, growers, therapists, designers, and technical advisors in the food and non-food sectors of horticulture.

Horticultural scientists focus on the research that underpins horticultural knowledge, skills, technologies, education and commerce. Horticultural science encompasses all of the pure sciences - mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology and biology – as well as related sciences and technologies that underpin horticulture, such as plant pathology, soil science, entomology, weed science, and many other scientific disciplines. It also includes the social sciences, such as education, commerce, marketing, healthcare and therapies that enhance horticulture’s contribution to society.

A gardener is a person that tends to a garden and is therefore a horticulturist. However, not all horticulturists are gardeners.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Understanding horticulture 3 Areas of study 4 Anthropology 5 Horticulture Organisations 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

Etymology

The word horticulture is modeled after agriculture, and comes from the Latin hortus "garden"^[2] and cultūra "cultivation", from cultus, the perfect passive participle of the verb colō "I cultivate".^[3] Hortus is cognate with the native English word yard (in the meaning of land associated with a building) and also the borrowed word garden.^[4]

Understanding horticulture

Horticulture is a term that evokes images of plants and gardening for those people working in the horticulture industry.^[5] For the general public and government policy makers at local, national and international levels the term is not completely understood nor is the impact that horticulture has on human activities been fully appreciated. Horticulture has and will always exist as a matrix of inter-relating areas with overlapping and complex relationships. Defining the term Horticulture is a key factor in effective communication of the importance of plants, their cultivation and their use for sustainable human existence. It is evident that limiting the term horticulture to the popularist understanding of just a gardening activity fails to encompass the enormity of the impact that horticulture has on individuals, communities and society. Describing its impact on the physiological, psychological and social activities of people is key to expanding an understanding of horticulture.

Relf (1992)^[6] expanded the traditional understanding of horticulture beyond “garden” cultivation. Tukey (1962)^[7] gave an overview of those involved in the field of horticulture, in stating that there are those who are concerned with the science or biological side, those concerned with the business side and finally those who are concerned with the home or art side, who enjoy plants simply for the satisfaction they get from them. Primarily it is an art, but it is intimately connected with science at every point.^[8] Relf highlighted the fact that, in limiting the definition of horticulture severely limits an understanding of what horticulture means in terms of human well-being.^[9] Relf provided a comprehensive definition of horticulture as; the art and science of plants resulting in the development of minds and emotions of individuals, the enrichment and health of communities, and the integration of the “garden” in the breadth of modern civilisation.^[10] In addition, Halfacre and Barden (1979)^[11], Janick and Goldman (2003)^[12]. further extended the scope of horticulture when they agreed that the origins of horticulture are intimately associated with the history of humanity and that horticulture encompasses all life and bridges the gap between science, art and human beings. This broader vision of horticulture embraces PLANTS, including the multitude of products and activities (oxygen, food, medicine, clothing, shelter, celebration or remembrance) essential for human survival; and PEOPLE, whose active and passive involvement with “the garden” brings about benefits to them as individuals and to the communities and cultures they encompass (Relf, 2002 ^[13]; Relf and Lohr, 2003 ^[14]).

In can concluded that horticulture happens when people are in intimate, intensive contact with plants. It is the interface between people and plants.

Areas of study

According to some accounts, horticulture involves eight areas of study, which can be grouped into two broad sections - ornamentals and edibles:

• Arboriculture is the study of, and the selection, planting, care, and removal of, individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants.
• Turf management includes all aspects of the production and maintenance of turf grass for spots, leisure use or amenity use].
• Floriculture includes the production and marketing of floral crops.
• Landscape horticulture includes the production, marketing and maintenance of landscape plants.
• Olericulture includes the production and marketing of vegetables.
• Pomology includes the production and marketing of pome fruits.
• Viticulture includes the production and marketing of grapes.
• Oenology includes all aspects of wine and winemaking.
• Postharvest physiology involves maintaining the quality of and preventing the spoilage of horticultural crops.

Horticulturists can work in industry, government or educational institutions or private collections. They can be cropping systems engineers, wholesale or retail business managers, propagators and tissue culture specialists (fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, and turf), crop inspectors, crop production advisers, extension specialists, plant breeders, research scientists, and teachers.

Disciplines which complement horticulture include permaculture, biology, botany, entomology, chemistry, geography, mathematics, genetics, physiology, statistics, computer science, and communications, garden design, planting design. Plant science and horticulture courses include: plant materials, plant propagation, tissue culture, crop production, post-harvest handling, plant breeding, pollination management, crop nutrition, entomology, plant pathology, economics, and business. Some careers in horticultural science require a masters (MS) or doctoral (PhD) degree.

Horticulture is practiced in many gardens, "plant growth centres" and nurseries. Activities in nurseries range from preparing seeds and cuttings to growing fully mature plants. These are often sold or transferred to ornamental gardens or market gardens.

Anthropology

Horticulture has a very long history. The study and science of horticulture dates all the way back to the times of Cyrus the Great of ancient Persia, and has been going on ever since, with present day horticulturists such as Freeman S. Howlett, the revolutionary horticulturist. ^[15] The practice of horticulture can be retraced for many thousands of years. The cultivation of taro and yam in Papua New Guinea dates back to at least 6950-6440 cal BP.^[16] The origins of horticulture lie in the transition of human communities from nomadic hunter-gatherers to sedentary or semi-sedentary horticultural communities, cultivating a variety of crops on a small scale around their dwellings or in specialized plots visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next (such as the "milpa" or maize field of Mesoamerican cultures).^[17] In the Pre-Columbian Amazon Rainforest, natives are believed to have used biochar to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste.^[18] European settlers called it Terra Preta de Indio.^[19] In forest areas such horticulture is often carried out in swiddens ("slash and burn" areas).^[20] A characteristic of horticultural communities is that useful trees are often to be found planted around communities or specially retained from the natural ecosystem.

Horticulture primarily differs from agriculture in two ways. First, it generally encompasses a smaller scale of cultivation, using small plots of mixed crops rather than large fields of single crops. Secondly, horticultural cultivations generally include a wide variety of crops, even including fruit trees with ground crops. Agricultural cultivations however as a rule focus on one primary crop. In pre-contact North America the semi-sedentary horticultural communities of the Eastern Woodlands (growing maize, squash and sunflower) contrasted markedly with the mobile hunter-gatherer communities of the Plains people. In Central America, Maya horticulture involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as papaya, avocado, cacao, ceiba and sapodilla. In the cornfields, multiple crops were grown such as beans (using cornstalks as supports), squash, pumpkins and chilli peppers, in some cultures tended mainly or exclusively by women.^[21]

Horticulture Organisations

The Professional Body representing horticulturists in Great Britain and Ireland is the Institute of Horticulture (IOH) ^[22]. Also, the IOH has an international branch for members outside of these islands.

The International Society for Horticultural Science ^[23] promotes and encourages research and education in all branches of horticultural science.

Gallery

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  Tropical Fruits

• 

  Tropical Vegetables

• 

  The Butchart Gardens, British Columbia, Canada

• 

  Cool climate greenhouse extend the growing season

• 

  Community gardens often have several horticultural practices in use

• 

  tomatoes grown by hydroponic methods on straw bales

See also

Agriculture and Agronomy portal

• Turf management
• Horticultural therapy
• Forest gardening
• Genomics of domestication
• Indigenous horticulture
• Landscaping
• Permaculture
• Plug (horticulture)
• Tropical horticulture
• Vertical farming
• Floriculture
• Horticultural flora
• Horticultural botany
• Horticultural oil
• Hoe-farming

References

1. ^ Doyle, O., Aldous, D., Barrett-Mold, H., Bijzet, Z., Darnell, R. Martin, B., McEvilly, G. and Stephenson R. 2012 Defining Horticulture, Horticulturist and Horticultural Scientist. Ad Hoc Committee for Global Horticulture Advocacy. Editor: Dr Owen Doyle University College Dublin Ireland. Feb. 2012.
2. ^ hortus. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
3. ^ Harper, Douglas. "horticulture". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=horticulture. 
4. ^ Entry for yard Dictionary.com (presenting information supposedly from Random House Dictionary)
5. ^ Doyle and Kelleher 2009 Re-Discovering Horticulture: An Exploration from Plant Production to Social Capital Acta Hort 817. 209 -215.
6. ^ Relf, P.D.1992. Human issues in horticulture. HortTechnology. 2(2): 159-287.
7. ^ Tukey Sn., H.B. 1962. The role of horticulture in science and society. Keynote address to the XVIth International Horticultural Congress, Brussels.
8. ^ Bailey, L.H. 1904. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. MacMillan, N.Y.
9. ^ Relf, P.D. 1998. Human issues in horticulture. p. 1-17. In: J. Stoneham and T. Kendle. (eds.). Plants and human well-being. The Sensory Trust, Bath, England.
10. ^ Relf, P.D.1992. Human issues in horticulture. HortTechnology. 2(2): 159-287.
11. ^ Halfacre, G.R. and Barden, J.A. 1979. Horticulture. McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 722 p.
12. ^ Janick, J. and Goldman, I.L. 2003. Horticulture, horticultural science, and 100 years of ASHS. HortScience. 38: 883-900
13. ^ Relf, P.D.1992. Human issues in horticulture. HortTechnology. 2(2): 159-287.
14. ^ Relf, P.D. and Lohr, V.I. 2003. Human issues in horticulture. HortTechnology. 38(5): 984.
15. ^ PlantFacts
16. ^ Fullagar, Richard, Judith Field, Tim Denham, and Carol Lentfer (2006) Early and mid Holocene tool-use and processing of taro (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea sp.) and other plants at Kuk Swamp in the higlands of Papua New Guinea Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 595-614
17. ^ von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company
18. ^ Solomon, Dawit, Johannes Lehmann, Janice Thies, Thorsten Schafer, Biqing Liang, James Kinyangi, Eduardo Neves, James Petersen, Flavio Luizao, and Jan Skjemstad, Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic carbone in Amazonian Dark Earths, 71 Geochemica et cosmochemica ACTA 2285, 2286 (2007) (“Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.”) (internal citations omitted)
19. ^ Glaser, Bruno, Johannes Lehmann, and Wolfgang Zech, Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review, 35 Biology and Fertility of Soils 219, 220 (2002) (“These so called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques.”) (internal citations omitted)
20. ^ McGee, J.R. and Kruse, M. (1986) Swidden horticulture among the Lacandon Maya [videorecording (29 mins.)]. University of California, Berkeley: Extension Media Center
21. ^ Thompson, S.I. (1977) Women, Horticulture, and Society in Tropical America. American Anthropologist, N.S., 79: 908-910
22. ^ [http://www.horticulture.org.uk/)
23. ^ ISHS

Further reading

• C.R. Adams, Principles of Horticulture Butterworth-Heinemann; 5th edition (11 Aug 2008), ISBN 0-7506-8694-4

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Horticulture

• Horticulture at University College Dublin
• The Institute of Horticulture
• ISHS - International Society for Horticultural Science
• The Royal Horticultural Society
• RHS Chelsea Flower Show
• Hampton Court Palace Flower Show
• RHS Show Tatton Park
• British Library - finding information on the horticulture industry
• History of Horticulture
• HORTIVAR - The FAO Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database
• Global Horticulture Initiative - GlobalHort
• Horticulture Information & Resource Library
• Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary
• The Montreal Botanical Garden

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - havebrug, gartneri

Nederlands (Dutch)
tuinbouw, tuinbouwkunde

Français (French)
n. - horticulture

Deutsch (German)
n. - Gartenbau

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - φυτοκομία, κηπευτική, κηπουρική

Italiano (Italian)
orticoltura

Português (Portuguese)
n. - horticultura (f) (Agr.)

Русский (Russian)
садоводство

Español (Spanish)
n. - horticultura

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - trädgårdsodling, hortikultur

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
园艺

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 園藝

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 원예, 원예학

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 園芸

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) البستنه أو الجنانه, علم أو فن زراعه الاشجار المثمرة والخضر والزهور ونباتات الزينه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮גננות‬

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