Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Email
Answers.com

Hypatia of Alexandria

 
Scientist: Hypatia of Alexandria
 
Home > Library > Science > Scientists

[b. Alexandria, Egypt, c. 370 ce, d. Alexandria, 415]

Hypatia was a Greek philosopher and the daughter of another philosopher, Theon of Alexandria, who taught her mathematics. About 400 ce she became head of the Platonist school at Alexandria, where she lectured on the philosophy known as Neoplatonism. This combined Plato's ideas with a mix of Christian, Jewish, and East Asian influences and emphasized striving for an unreachable ultimate reality. Her edition of Euclid's Elements, prepared with her father, became the basis for all later versions. Christians deemed her philosophical views pagan and killed her during antipagan riots. She is considered to be the first woman of any importance in the history of mathematics.


Search unanswered questions...

Enter a word or phrase...
All Community Q&A Reference topics

Biography: Hypatia of Alexandria
 
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Biographies

Hypatia of Alexandira (370-415) was the only famous woman scholar in ancient Egypt. She became a teacher and wrote many books on mathematics along with criticisms of philosophical and mathematical concepts.

Although all of her work has been lost or destroyed, history regards Hypatia of Alexandria as the only famous female scholar of ancient times. She was the first woman ever known to teach and analyze highly advanced mathematics.

Hypatia probably studied mathematics and astronomy under the tutelage of her father, Theon of Alexandria (fl. c. 4th century A.D.), the last recorded member of the city's great Museum. The Museum of Alexandria in Egypt was a prominent cultural and intellectual center which resembled a large modern university. It consisted of several schools, public auditoriums, and the famous library, once one of the most comprehensive repositories of books in antiquity. Although the Museum was in Egypt, its dominant culture and a considerable portion of its population were Greek. At one time, scholars came from across the Roman Empire and even from as far away as Ethiopia and India to hear lectures on the latest scientific and philosophical ideas and to study in the city's library.

Hypatia became a teacher at Alexandria's Neoplatonic School and was appointed its director in 400 A.D. Her lively lectures won her popular esteem, and she wrote a number of books on mathematics and other subjects, as well as criticisms of philosophical and mathematical concepts which her contemporaries regarded as perceptive. She corresponded with many distinguished scholars, some of whose letters to her survive and testify to their estimation of her abilities.

Although written records are sketchy, it appears that Hypatia invented or helped to invent mechanical devices such as the plane astrolabe, an instrument used by Greek astronomers to determine the position of the sun and stars. This device was probably developed with Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-413 A.D.), a scholar who had attended Hypatia's classes. A letter to Hypatia from Synesius, who later became a Christian and the bishop of Ptolomais, exists in which he asks her advice on the construction of the device. Synesius also worked with Hypatia on a graduated brass hydrometer, which measured the specific gravity of liquids, and a hydroscope, which was used to observe objects submerged in water.

At the age of 45 Hypatia was brutally murdered by a mob. The reasons behind her violent death are in dispute, though her personal independence and pagan beliefs seem to have created hostility among Alexandria's Christian community. Another contributing factor appears to have been her alliance with Orestes, the pagan governor of the city, and a political adversary of Cyril (c. 375-444 A.D.), the Alexandrian bishop. After Hypatia was killed, her works perished, along with many other records of ancient learning, when mobs burned the library, destroying the entire collection.

 
Classical Literature Companion: Hȳpātia
Top
Home > Library > Literature & Language > Classical Literature Companion

Hȳpātia (d. AD 415), Alexandrian Greek mathematician and Neoplatonist philosopher, daughter of the mathematician Theon; she was murdered by a Christian mob. See NEOPLATONISM.

 
Philosophy Dictionary: Hypatia
Top
Home > Library > History, Politics & Society > Philosophy Dictionary

(c. 370-415) Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer, and the author of commentaries on the mathematicians Diophantus and Apollonius. She was educated under Plutarch the younger, and lived in Alexandria as an influential teacher, becoming the head of her father's academy. The source of knowledge of her life is the collection of letters of one of her pupils, Synesius of Cyrene. She was murdered when Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, had a Christian mob drag her to a church, where his monks scoriated her with oyster shells; according to the historian Gibbon the event shocked even contemporary Christian opinion. Cyril was later canonized.

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: Hypatia
Top
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Columbia Encyclopedia - People
Hypatia (hīpā'shə) , d.415, Alexandrian Neoplatonic philosopher and mathematician, a woman renowned for her learning, eloquence, and beauty. Little is known of her writings. Her fame is largely owing to her barbarous murder by a band of monks, said to have been encouraged by the archbishop, St. Cyril of Alexandria (a personal and political enemy of the prefect of Egypt, who was believed to have been Hypatia's lover).
 
Wikipedia: Hypatia of Alexandria
Top
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
For other uses see Hypatia (disambiguation)
Hypatia of Alexandria
Hypatia
Ancient philosophy

Hypatia as imagined by Raphael

Detail from The School of Athens (1509-1510)
Full name Hypatia (Υπατία)
Birth c. 370
Death 415
School/tradition Platonism
Main interests Mathematics, astronomy

Hypatia of Alexandria (pronounced /haɪˈpeɪʃə/ in English) (Greek: Ὑπατία; born between AD 350 and 370 – 415) was a Greek[1][2] scholar from Alexandria in Egypt,[3][4] considered the first notable woman in mathematics, who also taught philosophy and astronomy.[5] She lived in Roman Egypt, and was killed by a Christian mob who blamed her for religious turmoil. Some suggest that her murder marked the end of the Hellenistic Age,[6][7] although others observe pagan philosophy continued to flourish until the age of Justinian in the sixth century.[8]

A Neoplatonist philosopher, she belonged to the mathematical tradition of the Academy of Athens represented by Eudoxus of Cnidus;[9] she followed the school of the 3rd century thinker Plotinus, discouraging empirical enquiry and encouraging logical and mathematical studies.[10]

Contents

Life

Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, who was her teacher and the last known mathematician associated with the museum of Alexandria.[11] She traveled to both Athens and Italy to study,[12] before becoming head of the Platonist school at Alexandria in approximately 400 AD .[13] According to the 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia the Suda, she worked as teacher of philosophy, teaching the works of Plato and Aristotle.[14] It is believed that there were both Christians[15] and foreigners[10] among her students.

Although Hypatia was herself a pagan, she was respected by a number of Christians, and later held up by Christian authors as a symbol of virtue.[10] The Suda controversially[16] declared her "the wife of Isidore the Philosopher"[14] but agreed she had remained a virgin.[17]

Hypatia rebuffed a suitor by showing him her menstrual rags, claiming they demonstrated that there was "nothing beautiful" about carnal desires.[14]

Hypatia maintained correspondence with her former pupil Bishop of Ptolomais Synesius of Cyrene.[18] Together with the references by Damascius, these are the only writings with descriptions or information from her pupils that survive.[19]

The contemporary Christian historiographer Socrates Scholasticus described her in his Ecclesiastical History:

There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more.[10]

Works

Hypatia, painted by Charles William Mitchell in 1885.

Many of the works commonly attributed to Hypatia are believed to have been collaborative works with her father, Theon Alexandricus; this kind of authorial uncertainty being typical for the situation of feminine philosophy in Antiquity.[20]

A partial list of specific accomplishments:

Her contributions to science are reputed to include the charting of celestial bodies[5] and the invention of the hydrometer,[24] used to determine the relative density and gravity of liquids.

Her pupil Synesius, bishop of Cyrene, wrote a letter defending her as the inventor of the astrolabe, although earlier astrolabes predate Hypatia's model by at least a century - and her father had gained fame for his treatise on the subject.[25]

Death

Believed to have been the reason for the strained relationship between the Imperial Prefect Orestes and the Bishop Cyril, Hypatia attracted the ire of a Christian population eager to see the two reconciled.

One day in March 415,[26] during the season of Lent, her chariot was waylaid on her route home by a Christian mob, possibly Nitrian monks[26] led by a man identified only as Peter, who is thought to be Peter the Reader, Cyril's assistant.

The Christian monks stripped her naked and dragged her through the streets to the newly Christianised Caesareum church, where she was brutally killed. Some reports suggest she was flayed with ostraca (potshards) and set ablaze while still alive, though other accounts suggest those actions happened after her death:

Socrates Scholasticus (5th-century) John of Nikiû (7th-century) Edward Gibbon (18th-century)

Yet even she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop. Some of them therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her by scraping her skin off with tiles and bits of shell. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them.

And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through Satanic wiles...A multitude of believers in God arose under the guidance of Peter the magistrate...and they proceeded to seek for the pagan woman who had beguiled the people of the city and the prefect through her enchantments. And when they learnt the place where she was, they proceeded to her and found her...they dragged her along till they brought her to the great church, named Caesarion. Now this was in the days of the fast. And they tore off her clothing and dragged her...through the streets of the city till she died. And they carried her to a place named Cinaron, and they burned her body with fire.

A rumor was spread among the Christians, that the daughter of Theon was the only obstacle to the reconciliation of the prefect and the archbishop; and that obstacle was speedily removed. On a fatal day, in the holy season of Lent, Hypatia was torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the Reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics: her flesh was scraped from her bones with sharp oyster-shells and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames.

Despite her actual background, authors Soldan and Heppe wrote a text in 1990 arguing that Hypatia may have been the first famous "witch" punished under Christian authority.[27]

Legacy

The 1867 photograph Hypatia by Julia Margaret Cameron
An actress, possibly Mary Anderson, in the title role of the play Hypatia, circa 1900
Hypatia as imagined in a 1908 illustration

Antiquity to the Age of Reason

Shortly after her death, a forged letter attacking Christianity was published under her name.[28] According to Bryan J. Whitfield, the pagan historian Damascius was "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death",[29] and laid the blame squarely on the Christians and Bishop Cyril. His account was incorporated in the Suda and so became widely known. However, Damascius is the only ancient source to say that Cyril was responsible.[30]

In the 14th century, historian Nicephorus Gregoras described Eudokia Makrembolitissa as a "second Hypatia".[19]

In the early 18th century, the deist scholar John Toland used her death as the basis for an anti-Catholic tract entitled "Hypatia: Or the history of a most beautiful, most vertuous, most learned, and every way accomplish’d lady; who was torn to pieces by the clergy of Alexandria, to gratify the pride, emulation, and cruelty of their archbishop, commonly but undeservedly stil’d St. Cyril.[31] This led to a counter-claim being published by Thomas Lewis in 1721 entitled The History Of Hypatia, A most Impudent School-Mistress of Alexandria.[32]

Eventually, her story began to be infused with Christian details, as it was first substituted for the missing history of Saint Catherine of Alexandria.[33][34]

Nineteenth century

In the nineteenth century, interest in the "literary legend of Hypatia" began to rise.[19]

Diodata Saluzzo Roero's 1827 Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a "treacherous" priest.

In his 1847 Hypatie and 1857 Hypatie et Cyrille, French poet Charles-Marie-René Leconte de Lisle portrayed Hypatia as the epitome of "vulnerable truth and beauty".[35]

Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel Hypatia - or New Foes with an Old Face, which portrayed the scholar as a "helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine",[36] recounted her conversion by a Jewish-Christian named Raphael Aben-Ezra after supposedly becoming disillusioned with Orestes.

In 1868, the early photographer Julia Margaret Cameron created a portrait of the scholar as a young woman[37].

Twentieth century and beyond

Fully fledged fictionalised accounts of her life include Remembering Hypatia: A Novel of Ancient Egypt by Brian Trent[38], Ipazia, scienziata alessandrina by Adriano Petta (translated from the Italian in 2004 as Hypatia: Scientist of Alexandria), and Flow Down Like Silver by Ki Longfellow, with a tentative publication date of 2009. American astonomer Carl Sagan, in Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, discussed Hypatia and gave a detailed description, though speculative, of her death and the destruction of the Library of Alexandria. He declares her, without corroboration, its last librarian and links its destruction with her death. The 2008 novel Azazīl, by Egyptian Muslim author Dr. Yūsuf Zaydan, tells the story of the religious conflict of that time through the eyes of a monk, including a substantial section on Hypatia. [39] Zaydan's book has been criticized by Christians in Egypt [40] Ágora, a film written and directed by Alejandro Amenábar, is about a slave of Hypatia who falls in love with her. Hypatia is portrayed by Rachel Weisz; the film debuted at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2009[41].

References to Hypatia appear in other fiction. Some authors mention her in passing, such as Marcel Proust, who dropped her name in the last sentence of "Madame Swann at Home," the first section of Within a Budding Grove. Some characters are named after her, such as Hypatia Cade, a precocious child and main character in the science fiction novel The Ship Who Searched by Mercedes Lackey and Anne McCaffrey. Rinne Groff's 2000 play The Five Hysterical Girls Theorem features a character named Hypatia who lives silently, in fear that she will suffer the fate of her namesake. Hypatia is the name of a 'shipmind' (ship computer) in The Boy Who Would Live Forever, a novel in Frederick Pohl's Heechee series. Umberto Eco's novel Baudolino sees the protagonist meet a secluded society of satyr-like creatures who all take their name and philosophy from Hypatia. A fictional version of the historic character appears in several works and indeed series, such as the Heirs of Alexandria series written by Mercedes Lackey, Eric Flint and Dave Freer, which includes fictitious references to Hypatia's conversion to Christianity and subsequent correspondence with John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo; the Corto Maltese adventure Fable of Venice, by characteristic superposition of anachronistic elements, sees Hypatia preside over an intellectual salon in pre-Fascist Italy; and as a recurring character in Mark London Williams' juvenile fiction Danger Boy.

Other artistic works draw on or are based around Hypatia, notably in the First Wing of feminist artist Judy Chicago's large-scale work The Dinner Party.

The Agora (film), based on her story, premiered at Cannes 2009.[42]

Her name lives on in other areas. Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy has been published since 1986 by Indiana University Press. Hypatia Sans Pro is an Adobe typeface.[43] Hypatia is one of thirteen cooperative community house in Madison, Wisconsin. The lunar crater Hypatia was named after the philosopher, in addition to craters named for her father Theon and for Cyril. Measuring 28x41 kilometres, the crater is located 4.3°S and 22.6°E of the meridian. The 180 km Rimae Hypatia is located north of the crater, one degree south of the equator, along the Mare Tranquillitatis.[44] A main belt asteroid discovered in 1884 was named 238 Hypatia in her honour. A genus of moth also bears her name.

Notes

  1. ^ Mueller, I.; L.S. Grinstein & P.J. Campbell (1987). Women of Mathematics: A Biobibliographic Sourcebook. New York: Greenwood Press. 
  2. ^ 1. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries, Krebs. 2. The Woman Citizen By Horace Adelbert Hollister.3. Russian Women's Studies: Essays on Sexism in Soviet Culture 4.Available Means: An Anthology of Women's Rhetoric
  3. ^ Hypatia, Encyclopædia Britannica: "Egyptian Neoplatonist philosopher who was the first notable woman in mathematics."
  4. ^ Columbia Encyclopedia, Hypatiacitation:Alexandrian Neoplatonic philosopher and mathematician
  5. ^ a b Toohey, Sue (2003). "The Important Life & Tragic Death of Hypatia". Skyscript.co.uk. http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-09. 
  6. ^ Women Philosophers in the Ancient Greek World: Donning the Mantle, by Kathleen Wider. Hypatia © 1986 Indiana University Press p. 49-50
  7. ^ Mangasarian, Mangasar Mugurditch. The Martyrdom of Hypatia, 1915
  8. ^ Christian Wildberg, in Hypatia of Alexandria - a philosophical martyr, The Philosopher's Zone, ABC Radio National (4 April 2009).
  9. ^ Hypatia of Alexandria - a philosophical martyr, The Philosopher's Zone, ABC Radio National (4 April 2009).
  10. ^ a b c d Scholasticus, Socrates. Ecclesiastical History. http://cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-socrates.html. 
  11. ^ Michael Deakin (August 3, 1997). "Ockham's Razor: Hypatia of Alexandria". ABC Radio. http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ockham/or030897.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  12. ^ Multicultural Resource Center: Hypatia
  13. ^ Historical Dictionary of Feminism, by Janet K. Boles, Diane Long Hoeveler. pp 166.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Suda online, Upsilon 166
  15. ^ Bregman, J. (1982). "Synesius of Cyrene: Philosopher-bishop". Berkley: University of California Press.
  16. ^ Kingsley, Charles. "Hypatia", preface, quoting and agreeing with Gibbon
  17. ^ Great Inspirations - Hypatia
  18. ^ A. Fitzgerald, Letters of Synesius of Cyrene, London, 1926. (Letter 154 of Synesius of Cyrene to Hypatia).
  19. ^ a b c Dzielska 1996[page needed]
  20. ^ David Engels: Zwischen Philosophie und Religion: Weibliche Intellektuelle in Spätantike und Islam, in: D. Groß (Hg.), Gender schafft Wissen, Wissenschaft Gender. Geschlechtsspezifische Unterscheidungen und Rollenzuschreibungen im Wandel der Zeit, Kassel 2009, 97-124.
  21. ^ Dzielska 1995, pp.71-2; "Until recently scholars thought that Hypatia revised Theon's commentary on Almagest. The view was based on the title of the commentary on the third book of Almagest, which read as follows: "Commentary by Theon of Alexandria on Book III of Ptolemy's Almagest, edition revised by my daughter Hypatia, the philosopher." Cameron, who has analyzed Theon's titles for other books of Almagest and for other scholarly texts of late antiquity, concludes that Hypatia corrected not her father's commentary but the text of Almagest itself. Thus, the extant text of Almagest could have been prepared, at least partly, by Hypatia."
  22. ^ Grout, J. (n.d.). "Encyclopaedia Romana: Hypatia". http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/hypatia.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-16. 
  23. ^ Dzielska 1995, p.72
  24. ^ Ethlie Ann Vare and Greg Ptacek, Mothers of Invention 1988, pp. 24-26.
  25. ^ Chris Marvin, Frank Sikernitsky The Window:Philosophy on the Web
  26. ^ a b O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Hypatia of Alexandria", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive .
  27. ^ Soldan, W.G. und Heppe, H., Geschichte der Hexenprozesse, Essen 1990. p.82.
  28. ^ Synodicon, c. 216, in iv. tom. Concil. p. 484, as detailed in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 8, chapter XLVII
  29. ^ Whitfield 1995, p.14
  30. ^ Dzielska 1996, p.18
  31. ^ Ogilvie, M. B. (1986). Women in science: Antiquity through the nineteenth century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
  32. ^ The History Of Hypatia, A most Impudent School-Mistress of Alexandria: Murder'd and torn to Pieces by the Populace, In Defence of Saint Cyril and the Alexandrian Clergy. From the Aspersions of Mr. Toland.
  33. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Catherine of Alexandria. (2007, March 6). In Wikisource, The Free Library. Retrieved 22:14, May 16, 2009.
  34. ^ Jameson, Anna. "Sacred and Legendary Art", 1857. pp 84.
  35. ^ Edwards, Catharine. "Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture, 1789-1945" pp. 112
  36. ^ Snyder, J.M. (1989). The woman and the lyre: Women writers in classical Greece and Rome.. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. 
  37. ^ Marsh, Jan; Pamela Gerrish Nunn (1998). Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists. London: Thames & Hudson. 
  38. ^ "Remembering Hypatia: A Novel of Ancient Egypt". http://www.rememberinghypatia.com/. 
  39. ^ Rose al-Yusuf, May 9, 2008 reviewed by Arab-West Report, 2008, week 18, art. 48
  40. ^ "The sin of apostasy in ’Azazīl’". Arab-West Report. 2008, Week 28, Art. 29. http://arabwestreport.info/awr/article_details.php?article_id=20102&ayear=2008&aweek=21&article_title=The%20sin%20of%20apostasy%20in%20%E2%80%99%3CSUP%3Ec%3C/SUP%3EAzaz%C4%ABl%E2%80%99%20&article_t_date=May%2024&article_p_date=2008-05-19&article_p_week=2008-05-25&t=s. 
  41. ^ Trailer of the movie "Agora"
  42. ^ Fiona (18 May, 2009). "Cannes 2009: Agora World Premiere - Reviews". filmofilia. http://www.filmofilia.com/2009/05/18/cannes-2009-agora-world-premiere/. 
  43. ^ "Hypatia Sans Pro, my new typeface". Adobe Systems. http://blogs.adobe.com/typblography/2007/04/hypatia_sans.html. Retrieved on 2008-08-24. 
  44. ^ "Hypatia of Alexandria: A woman before her time". The Woman Astronomer. November 11, 2007. http://www.womanastronomer.com/hypatia.htm. Retrieved on 2007-12-03. 

References

This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology by William Smith (1870).

Further reading

External links

Sister project Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Category:Hypatia
Wikisource
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Wikisource
Wikisource has original text related to this article:


v • d • e
Platonists
Academics
Old
Middle
New
Middle Platonists
Neoplatonists
v • d • e
Greek mathematics
Mathematicians
Anaxagoras · Anthemius · Archytas · Aristaeus the Elder · Aristarchus · Apollonius · Archimedes · Autolycus · Bion · Boethius · Bryson · Callippus · Carpus · Chrysippus · Cleomedes · Conon · Ctesibius · Democritus · Dicaearchus · Diocles · Diophantus · Dinostratus · Dionysodorus · Domninus · Eratosthenes · Eudemus · Euclid · Eudoxus · Eutocius · Geminus · Heron · Hipparchus · Hippasus · Hippias · Hippocrates · Hypatia · Hypsicles · Isidore of Miletus · Leo the Mathematician · Marinus · Menaechmus · Menelaus · Nicomachus · Nicomedes · Nicoteles · Oenopides · Pappus · Perseus · Philolaus · Philon · Porphyry · Posidonius · Proclus · Ptolemy · Pythagoras · Serenus  · Simplicius · Sosigenes · Sporus · Thales · Theaetetus · Theano · Theodorus · Theodosius · Theon of Alexandria · Theon of Smyrna · Thymaridas · Xenocrates · Zeno of Elea · Zeno of Sidon · Zenodorus
Treatises
Centers
Influences
Influenced
Tables
Famous problems

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

 
 

 

Copyrights:

Scientist. History of Science and Technology, edited by Bryan Bunch and Alexander Hellemans. Copyright © 2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
Biography. © 2006 through a partnership of Answers Corporation. All rights reserved.  Read more
Classical Literature Companion. The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Copyright © 1993, 2003 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.  Read more
Philosophy Dictionary. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Copyright © 1994, 1996, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.  Read more
Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/  Read more
Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Hypatia of Alexandria".  Read more

Related answers
» More
 
Answer these
» More