Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), founder of the Jesuits. The youngest of eleven children of a Basque nobleman, he was brought up to be a soldier. He fought the French in Castile, but was wounded at the siege of Pamplona in 1521. His broken leg was badly set, was broken again, and reset: the impact of the cannon-ball, made worse by bad surgery, left him deformed and with a limp for the rest of his life. During his convalescence he asked to read knightly romances; instead he was given a Life of Christ and some Legends of the Saints. His conversion followed; he lived for a year in prayer and penance at Manresa, close to the famous abbey of Montserrat. Here he experienced both desolation and consolation, and wrote the first draft of his famous Spiritual Exercises, which incorporated some of the traditional teaching of Montserrat. In 1523 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, begging his way like many before him. Franciscans there persuaded him to renounce a project for converting the Muslims, so he returned to Spain, still without a clear plan for his life.

He decided to study Latin in order to work for souls. He went to Barcelona, Alcala, Salamanca, and lastly Paris (1528), where he also studied philosophy for three years, graduating in 1534 as master of arts. He had lived in austere holiness and, although still a layman, had given direction to those in trouble, especially women of varied backgrounds. In Spain this had led to his imprisonment as a suspected heretic. In Paris he gathered six disciples, to whom he gave the Spiritual Exercises; together they took vows of poverty and chastity and promised to serve the Church either by preaching in Palestine or in other ways that the pope thought fit. In 1537 they met in Venice: unable to reach the Holy Land, they went to Rome and resolved to become a new religious Order. By now, they had all been ordained priests. Vows of obedience and readiness to go anywhere the pope sent them were added to the others. Works of charity such as teaching the young and uneducated, as well as missionary enterprises, were among their earliest ideals. The choral celebration of the Divine Office was abolished so as to leave them free for these works. This was a revolutionary step, but the whole package won papal approval in 1540. Ignatius was chosen, predictably but unwillingly, as the first General. For the rest of his life he stayed at Rome, directing the Society he had founded.

For fifteen years he inspired, counselled, and directed his subjects with prudence and understanding. His iron will and determination did not make him unlovable or impatient. But the way of total obedience, made by the aspirant during the Spiritual Exercises, was insisted upon; it has often been compared to a military commitment and the Society of Jesus to an army. Perhaps it is more accurate to consider the Jesuits as analogous to the Friars in the Middle Ages, but bound by a tighter organization more appropriate to the crisis situation of the 16th century.

The papacy directed them to meet this in Germany. Here Peter Canisius, supported by the German College at Rome, also directed by the Jesuits, effected a notable counter-attack to the diatribes of Lutherans and Calvinists. Fundamental to the whole enterprise of the Counter-Reformation in many countries was the unobtrusive educational work of the Jesuit schools. Their education was ‘modern’ and ‘progressive’ in so far as it made use of the classics and critical scholarship; it stimulated competition as well as interest; but it also tended to be authoritarian.

The Jesuits were, and are prominent in the foreign missions. The pioneer work of Francis Xavier in the Far East was emulated by others later in India and China, Ethiopia and the Congo, South America, and Canada. Ignatius and his successors were generous in their allocation of personnel, money, and time to their enterprises. Among Ignatius' personal foundations at Rome were houses for convert Jews and hostels for fallen women. Spiritual direction, which was to complete rather than replace the work of parish priests, was undertaken by Jesuits; but not, in their early days, the actual charge of parishes.

The first Jesuits to reach England arrived in 1542. More famous were those of the Elizabethan age like Edmund Campion and Robert Southwell, whose education, humanism, courage, and resourcefulness made them an inspiration to many English Catholics.

Ignatius died suddenly on 31 July 1556. By then the Jesuits numbered over 1, 000 members in nine European provinces besides those working in the foreign missions. In 1990 they numbered 24, 500. He was canonized in 1622 and declared patron of spiritual exercises and retreats by Pius XI. He is also patron of many schools, churches, and colleges. Feast: 31 July.

Bibliography
Click here for a list of abbreviations used in this bibliography.

• AA.SS. Iul. VII (1731), 409–853; Monumenta Ignatiana (1903–65) contain the Life, Letters, Spiritual Exercises, and other writings: Eng. tr. of his Autobiography (ed. J. N. Tylenda, 1985), of his Letters (ed. J. A. Munitiz, 1995), of his Personal Writings (ed. J. A. Munitiz and P. Endean, 1996). Lives by J. Brodrick (1956), H. Boehmer (1951), and W. W. Meissner (1992). See also studies by H. Rahner, tr. as Ignatius the Theologian (1968), Ignatius: the man and the priest (1982); F. Wulf and others, Ignatius von Loyola… 1556–1956 (1957); J. F. Gilmont and P. Daman, Bibliographie Ignatienne, 1894–1957 (1958); B.L.S., vii. 248–59; Bibl. SS., vii. 674–705

For more information on Saint Ignatius of Loyola, visit Britannica.com.

(ĭgnā'shəs, loiyō'lə) , 1491–1556, Spanish churchman, founder of the Jesuits (see Jesus, Society of), b. Loyola Castle near Azpeitia, Guipúzcoa, Spain.

Early Life and Ordination

Ignatius was of noble birth and was reared in the household of a prominent courtier. In 1517 he left his life at court to enter the army. During a convalescence (1521) from a serious wound, he was converted through reading a life of Jesus. He went to Montserrat, where he was confessed and absolved, and from there he went to Manresa. In 1523 he set out for the Holy Land. Prevented from entering Palestine, he returned with the decision to secure an education.

He studied at Barcelona (1524–26); at Alcalá (1526–27), where for a short time he was imprisoned by the Inquisition; at Salamanca (1527–28), where he again suffered brief imprisonment; and at Paris. St. Ignatius's strength lay not in scholarship but in spiritual direction. The Inquisition again became suspicious, but he was cleared of any irregularities. He and six followers—among them St. Francis Xavier and Diego Lainez—together took vows of poverty and chastity. This group was the nucleus of the future Jesuits. They planned to go to the Holy Land and live in imitation of Christ, working to convert the Muslims, but the Turkish wars intervened, and they went to Rome instead. They were ordained (1537) and received by the pope (1538), who set them to work in Italy.

Founding of the Jesuit Order

In 1539, Ignatius drew up a Formula for a new order and secured (1540) papal approval. It served as the basis for the later Constitutions, published at his death, by which Jesuits have been governed ever since. Ignatius was elected (1541) general of the order and remained its leader, with headquarters in Rome, until his death. Although the Jesuits became a major force in the Counter Reformation, the society was not founded particularly for that purpose. Ignatius's great interests seem to have been the foreign missions and the education of youth. Many schools were opened in Europe during his lifetime, and missions were begun in Japan, India, and Brazil.

He was dominated all his life by a desire to imitate Christ. His Spiritual Exercises, written over a number of years, are a series of reflections, examinations of conscience, and prayers, grouped according to a traditional set of four steps leading to mystical union with God. The spirituality identified with St. Ignatius is characterized by emphasis on human initiative. His little book is a classic of Christian mysticism and is much used by devout Catholics. His concept of the “soldier of Christ” has often been understood too militaristically: Ignatius used the image in obvious imitation of St. Paul (Eph. 6.10–17). He is buried in the Gesù at Rome. He was canonized in 1622. Feast: July 31.

Bibliography

See Letters of St. Ignatius Loyola (tr. 1959) and his quasi-autobiography, The Testament of Ignatius Loyola (tr. 1900); J. P. Brodrick, The Origin of the Jesuits (1940, repr. 1971); T. Maynard, Saint Ignatius and the Jesuits (1956); H. Rahner, Ignatius the Theologian (tr. 1968); W. W. Meissner, Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a Saint (1992).

Spanish ecclesiastic who founded the Jesuits and was a leader of the Counter Reformation.

Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), Spanish religious leader. Founder of the Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, Ignatius of Loyola was born Iñigo de Oñaz y Loyola in 1491 in Azpeitia in the Basque province of Guipúzcoa in northeastern Spain. He was the youngest of thirteen children in a family of lesser nobility but not lacking in social contacts or high prestige. Ignatius's father, just before his death, situated his youngest son in the household of Juan Velázquez de Cuéllar, the chief treasurer of King Ferdinand (1452–1516) and Queen Isabella (1451–1504). There young Ignatius learned courtly manners and sophistication, skills that served him well throughout his life. King Ferdinand's death brought about the downfall of Ignatius's patron, and through friends and family Ignatius received a position with the duke of Nájera, don Antonio Manrique de Lara.

Ignatius's life at either of these courts could not be held up as an example of Christian virtue. In May 1521 the simmering conflict between King Francis I (1491–1547) of France and King Charles I (1500–1558) of Spain erupted when the French forces attacked Pamplona. While Ignatius was defending the city against the French siege, a cannonball struck him in the leg. The French victors assured transport of the wounded man back to his family's castle. During his convalescence, Ignatius requested books on chivalry, particularly those with the character of Amadis of Gaul. Instead his sister-in-law gave him two works, Life of Christ, authored by Ludolph of Saxony and translated by Ambrosio Montesino, and a Spanish version of Lives of the Saints by Jacobus de Voragine (Jacopo de Varazze) translated by Gauberto María Vagad. Contemplating these books, Ignatius underwent a conversion, rejected his past, and chose to live as a hermit in Jerusalem.

On his way to Jerusalem, Ignatius visited Montserrat, a Marian shrine near Barcelona managed by the Benedictines; he then spent just over a year in the nearby village of Manresa (April 1522 to February 1523). There he created the framework of the Spiritual Exercises. In the Exercises, Ignatius presented various methods by which a person could move systematically through the three traditional steps of spiritual growth: purgation, illumination, and union with God. Although completed in substance in Manresa, the work took on additional features until its final form received papal approval in 1548. Leaving Manresa, Ignatius arrived in Jerusalem in September 1523, but his plans to stay were thwarted by the Franciscan custodians, who wisely perceived such a strong-willed pilgrim as a liability.

Returning to Barcelona in 1524, Ignatius set his course on a new project. Changing his desire to live as a spiritual recluse, he discerned his vocation as "helping souls." This conversion grew from religious fervor and not from a specific desire to defeat Protestantism, and therefore he stands with other Catholic reformers of the early sixteenth century. To help souls he realized he needed a formal education, and for the first time he took up a serious study of Latin, the necessary tool for academic progress. After two years of study in Barcelona, his teachers recommended he continue at the new university at Alcalá, near Madrid. Arriving at the university in March 1526, he took courses in an indiscriminate fashion. He experienced discouraging attempts to study at Alcalá and later in Salamanca, but at both locations he was imprisoned in 1527 under the suspicion of the Inquisition. Ignatius continued his education in a more methodological way at the University of Paris, where he earned both his licentiate and a master's in philosophy between 1528 and 1535. The name "Ignatius" is inscribed in the school's role for 1534, and from this time forward, with few exceptions, he referred to himself as Ignatius, giving up the "Iñigo" of his early years.

In Paris, Ignatius gathered six men who together decided upon lives of poverty and chastity. They also desired to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and there decide their futures. If such a trip were impossible, they would make themselves available to the Roman pontiff. The trip proved impossible, and the group, wishing to remain together, formed a religious order that received the oral approval of Pope Paul III (1468–1549) in 1539 and written approval in 1540. Elected as the order's first superior general in 1541, Ignatius witnessed its growth from a few men to one thousand members at his death on 31 July 1556. He supervised the creation of thirty-three schools, wrote the order's constitutions, and governed the ever-expanding Society of Jesus in South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. Successfully grafting humanism, Catholic reform, and the missionary opportunities created by the New World economies onto medieval Europe's religious and philosophical heritage, Ignatius was one of the principal forces behind the transition from the medieval church to early modern Catholicism.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Saint Ignatius of Loyola. Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. Edited and translated by George E. Ganss. St. Louis, 1970.

——. Ignatius of Loyola: The Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works. Edited by George E. Ganss. New York, 1991. This edition includes the full text of the Spiritual Exercises, the Autobiography of Ignatius, selected letters, and parts of the constitutions.

——. Letters of Saint Ignatius of Loyola. Selected and translated by William Young. Chicago, 1959.

——. Letters to Women. Collected by Hugo Rahner. New York, 1960.

Monumenta Ignatiana. Exercitia spiritualia Sancti Ignatii de Loyola et eorum directoria. 2nd ed. rev., 2 vols. Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (MHSI). Madrid, 1919; Rome, 1969. The Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, formerly in Madrid and now in Rome, has edited the early documents of the Society of Jesus. These scholarly editions appear as a series with various contents or themes in the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (MHSI).

Monumenta Ignatiana. Fontes documentales de Sancti Ignatio de Loyola. Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (MHSI). Rome, 1977.

Monumenta Ignatiana. Sancti Ignatii de Loyola Constitutiones Societatis Jesu. 3 vols. Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (MHSI). Rome, 1934–1938.

Monumenta Ignatiana. Sancti Ignatii de Loyola Societatis Jesu fundatoris epistolae et instructiones. Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (MHSI). Madrid, 1903–1911.

Monumenta Ignatiana. Scripta de Sancto Ignatio de Loyola, Societas Jesu fundatore. 2 vols. Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (MHSI). Madrid, 1904–1918.

Polgár, László. Bibliographie sur l'histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus, 1901–1980. 3 vols. Rome, 1981–1990. The most extensive bibliography dealing with Ignatius.

Secondary Sources

De Dalmases, Cándido. Ignatius of Loyola: Founder of the Jesuits. Translated by Jerome Aixalá. St. Louis, 1985.

Ganss, George E. Saint Ignatius' Idea of a Jesuit University. Milwaukee, 1954.

O'Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, Mass., 1993.

Ravier, André. Ignatius of Loyola and the Founding of the Society of Jesus. Translated by Maura Daly, Joan Daly, and Carson Daly. San Francisco, 1987.

Tellechea Idígoras, José Ignacio. Ignatius of Loyola: The Pilgrim Saint. Edited and translated by Cornelius Michael Buckley. Chicago, 1994.

—MICHAEL W. MAHER

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