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Indian art and architecture

 
 
Columbia Encyclopedia: Indian art and architecture
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Indian art and architecture, works of art and architecture produced on the Indian subcontinent, which is now divided among India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In the Western world, notable collections of Indian art can be seen in the British Museum, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Introduction

Although a great deal of Indian secular art was produced, it was essentially made of perishable material and has not survived. What has survived in the medium of stone is religious art. In both Buddhist and Hindu art, symbolism in gesture, posture, and attribute contains many levels of meaning. In images of the Buddha, different hand positions (mudras) signify religious states, such as the Enlightenment (Nirvana), Meditation, and Preaching. In Hindu sculpture, deities (see Vishnu, Krishna, and Shiva) are frequently represented with many hands to indicate their power to perform multiple deeds at the same time, and the hands each carry their characteristic attributes. With the exception of Mughal art and architecture, which demands separate treatment, the major trends in Indian art–Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain–are discussed within this article.

Indus Valley Civilization

The earliest Indian art emerged from the valley of the Indus River during the second half of the 3d millennium B.C. The best-known sites are Harappa, destroyed in the 19th cent., and Mohenjo-Daro; these are among the earliest examples of civic planning. Houses, markets, storage facilities, offices, and public baths were arranged in a gridlike scheme. There was also a highly developed drainage system.

The Indus civilization produced many statuettes made of steatite and limestone. Some statuettes resemble the hieratic style of contemporary Mesopotamia, while others are done in the smooth, sinuous style that is the prototype of later Indian sculpture, in which the plastic modeling reveals the animating breath of life (prana). Also found in this region are square steatite seals adorned with a range of animals, including naturalistically rendered bulls; ceramic storage jars with simple, stylized designs; toys with wheels; and figurines, which may be mother goddesses. Bronze weapons, tools, and sculptures indicate a sophistication in craftsmanship rather than a major aesthetic development.

Post-Indus Civilization through the Maurya Dynasty

Of the period from the end of the Indus civilization (c.1500 B.C.) until Alexander the Great crossed (325 B.C.) the Indus, few traces remain. However, the principles of Indian architecture were developed in wooden buildings, long since disintegrated.

From the great Maurya dynasty the most famous remains are the edict pillars, erected throughout N India by the Emperor Asoka to proclaim his devotion to Buddhism. The monolithic, smooth columns are over 50 ft (15 m) high and are surmounted by lotus capitals and animal figures. Some of the pillar capitals reveal forms that suggest Persepolitan influences. Also dating from the reign of Asoka is the earliest stone ogival chaitya window, found on the portal of a small rock-cut sanctuary near Bodh Gaya. The chaitya halls were monastic sanctuaries hewn out of rock. As they evolved, from the 3d cent. B.C. through the 1st millennium A.D., they became elaborate colonnaded halls, or walls embellished with painting or sculpture.

Sunga and Andhra Dynasties

The earliest extant stupas date from the Sunga dynasty (2d–1st cent. B.C.) and early Andhra dynasty (1st cent. B.C.). These relic mounds are surrounded by railings and gateways covered with carved ornament. One of the main stupas is at Bharhut, where the sculpture is archaic in character. Relief medallions of the Buddha's life or of the jatakas (tales of his previous lives) are shallow cut, with all the incidents of each story arranged within a single composition. The bodies of semidivine beings including yakshis (female tree spirits) are flattened against the pillar of which they form part; prana is still emphasized.

The important stupa at Sanchi shows a similar style. Important carvings on the gateways of another stupa at Sanchi date from the early Andhra period. The yakshis have acquired full, graceful forms, and high-relief compositions are frequently conceived in a continuous method of narration. The carved railing from Bodh Gaya, the place of the Buddha's enlightenment, and the earliest surviving wall paintings are also early Andhra; paintings in the rock-cut cave at Ajanta narrate the Buddha's birth as an elephant and the entire synopsis of historic life. In the far south, in the Deccan, the later Andhra dynasty continued to flourish into the 1st cent. A.D. Its greatest monument is the carving at the Great Stupa at Amaravati, c.A.D. 200. The complex but coherent composition, the chiaroscuro, and the liveliness of the crowded surfaces distinguish these bas-reliefs.

Gandhara and Mathura

Under the Kushans, conquerors from central Asia, two of India's most important styles were developed between the 2d and 5th cent. A.D.: Gandhara art and art of Mathura. Gandhara art, named after the region of Gandhara now in Pakistan, presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha. Earlier at Bharhut and Sanchi, the Buddha's presence was represented by symbols, such as the pipal tree, the wheel of life, footprints, and an empty throne. The Gandhara style was profoundly influenced by 2d-century Hellenistic art and was itself highly influential in central and eastern Asia. Ivories and imported glass and lacquerware attest to the cosmopolitan tastes and extensive trade that characterized the period. Stupas and monasteries were adorned with relief friezes, often carved in dark schist, showing figures in classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies.

Farther east and south, contemporary Mathura, also under Kushan rule, created a wholly Indian sculptural art. Reddish limestone was the usual medium. More sensuous, heavier Buddhas whose limbs are created according to canonical instructions, smile directly at their worshipers. Reliefs of the yakshis carved against railing pillars are more frankly sensual and erotic than those at Sanchi. Buddhist iconography was developed in Gandhara. Mathura, however, preserved and developed Indian forms for three centuries.

The Gupta Period

Buddhist art flourished during this period, which has often been described as a golden age. A famous rock-cut monastery at Ajanta consists of several chaitya halls and numerous residential viharas. Both facades and interiors contain elegant relief sculpture, while interiors are covered with painted murals that feature superb figures drawn with a gracefully sinuous line. As in all periods, there is little difference in the images of the major Indian religions, Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain. Large stone figures, stone and terra-cotta reliefs, and large and small bronzes are made in the refined Gupta style; the level of production is uniformly high. After the 7th cent., although the rulers of the Pala and Sena dynasties (730–1197) were Hindu, significant Buddhist art was created. Images in bronze and in hard black stone from Nalanda and elsewhere reveal a development of the Gupta manner, with extensive attention to ornamental details.

Architecture and Sculpture of the Hindu Dynasties

From the 6th cent. on, with the resurgence of Hindu dynasties throughout India, a characteristic temple plan was developed. An entrance portico led to a pillared hall (mandapa) into the cella. The shrine was often crowned by a large tower known as the shikhara. In S India the Dravida tower rose in a series of terraces, each symbolizing a different divinity; in the north, nagara spires ascended in a massive conical shape.

Innumerable temples were built that were so exuberantly embellished with sculpture that their style is called “sculptural architecture.” The Khajuraho temples in central India (c.1000) represent one of the high points of the nagara buildings, and the damaged Temple of the Sun at Konarak (c.1250) reveals, in its famous erotic sculptures, carvings that combine balanced mass with delicate execution. The Jain temples at Mt. Abu, constructed entirely of imported white marble and dating from the 10th and 13th cent., have plain exteriors but are ornately carved inside.

In S India the 7th-century Pallava dynasty introduced the dravida style temple in a number of pyramidal raths (temples) at Mahabalipuram; an enormous cliff-face at the site is carved with a life-size representation of gods, men, and beasts, including the elephant family. The dravida style plan was used also in the 8th cent. in the quarried temple at Ellora. The Chola dynasty of S India further developed this form in the 11th cent., when they probably also cast most of large numbers of S Indian bronzes, of which the Nataraja (dancing Shiva) images are perhaps the best known.

The dravida style culminated in a series of expanded “temple townships,” of which the largest is Srirangam, consisting of seven concentric enclosures. These ended in the comparatively crude stucco sculptured architecture of 17th-century Mandura. Medieval bronze sculpture was highly developed in S India. The chief subjects were the deities, figures of whom were used for processional and home ritual. Skilled cire-perdue sculptures were produced until the late 19th cent. in many regions of India.

Indian Painting

Adverse climate and other conditions have injured what wall painting existed. The most famous surviving Buddhist paintings are from the caves at Ajanta. Little is known of Hindu wall painting except for fragments at Ellora and Tanjore (see Thanjavur). The earliest Indian manuscript paintings are Buddhist, of the Pala dynasty; they have a delicate color. The 13th- to 15th-century Jain manuscript illuminations, painted in vivid red, blue, and gold, are most easily recognized by the characteristic protruding farther eye. Rajput miniature painting, which was practiced in N India from the 16th through the 19th cent., is related both to Mughal painting and to earlier Indian styles. It illustrates a variety of Hindu subjects: the ragamala series (musical modes), the legendary epics and romances, and particularly Krishna's deeds. Rajput painting is characterized by lyrical landscapes, sinuous grace in the depiction of the human form, and an interest in perspective.

The Modern Era

Little of the glorious tradition of Indian artistic achievement survived British rule. Indian artists adapted Western techniques and produced gouache paintings to suit the tastes of European buyers. Patua scrolls, containing swiftly executed watercolor illustrations of many subjects, became one source for the revival of Indian themes during the 20th cent. A growing nationalist sentiment pervaded Indian art in the early decades of the 20th cent. along with the conscious assimilation of Western styles. Major modern artists include Abanindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Jamini Roy, Amrita Sher Gil, N. S. Bendre, M. B. Samant, Francis Souza, Bhagwan Kapoor, M. F. Husain, Bhupen Khakhar, Ram Kinker, Dhanraj Bhagat, Amar Nath Seghal, Chintamoni Kar, and Amina Ahmad.

Bibliography

See H. R. Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia (2 vol., 2d ed. 1960); W. G. Archer, Indian Painting from the Punjab Hills (1974); J. C. Harle, Gupta Sculpture (1974); J. C. Huntington, The Art of Ancient India (1985).

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Wikipedia: Architecture of India
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The Taj Mahal—a UNESCO World Heritage Site—in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Detail from the Jain temple at Ranakpur dedicated to Adinatha.

The architecture of India is rooted in its history, culture and religion.[1] Indian architecture progressed with time and assimilated the many influences that came as a result of India's global discourse with other regions of the world throughout its millennia-old past.[1] The architectural methods practiced in India are a result of examination and implementation of its established building traditions and outside cultural interactions.[1]

Though old, this Eastern tradition has also incorporated modern values as India became a modern nation state.[1] The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with the world's economy.[1] Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture during the contemporary era.[1]

Contents

Mehrgarh culture—Indus Valley Civilization (7000 BCE—1500 BCE)

Further information: Mehrgarh and Indus Valley Civilization

Archaeological evidence from Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) shows construction of mud brick houses and granaries.[2] Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization around 4500 BCE.[3] The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually lead to more planned settlements which further made use of drainage and sewers.[3]

Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts, Bihar. Grotto of Lomas Rishi. 3rd century BCE.

By 2800 BCE, private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in nearly all the houses of the Indus Valley Civilization.[4] The pottery pipes in walls allowed drainage of water and there was, in some case, provision of a crib for sitting.[4] The Indus Valley Civilization had some of the most advanced private lavatories in the world.[4] "Western-style" toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of wood on top.[4] The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems.[4] Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including the artificial reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BCE and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.[5]

Excavated ruins, Mohenjo-daro, modern-day Pakistan.

Large-scale sanitary sewer systems were in place in the Indus Valley by 2700 BCE.[4] The drains were 7-10 feet wide and 2 feet (0.61 m) below ground level.[4] The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic cleaning.[4] Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE.[4]

Pramod Chandra (2008) details the Indus Valley architecture from 2500–1800 BCE:[6]

From excavated remains, it is clear that the Indus Valley civilization possessed a flourishing urban architecture. The major cities associated with the civilization, notably Mohenjo-daro, Harappā, and Kalibangan, were laid out on a grid pattern and had provisions for an advanced drainage system. The residential buildings, which were serviceable enough, were mainly brick and consisted of an open patio flanked by rooms. For monumental architecture, the evidence is slight, the most important being a “sacred” tank (thought to be for ritual ablution) and associated structures. Corbel vaulting (arches supported by brackets projecting from the wall) was known, and, to a limited extent, timber was used together with brick; whatever architectural ornamentation existed must have been of brick or plaster.

Vedic period—Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BCE—200 CE)

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.
Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri (1st-2nd Century CE) is one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world still in use.[7]
Further information: Hindu temple architecture, Buddhist architecture, and Indian rock-cut architecture

The Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[8] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[8] Upon its discovery, this architectural became known as pagoda to the people from the Western world.[8] Fortified cities with stūpas, viharas, and temples were constructed during the Maurya empire (c. 321–185 BCE).[6] Wooden architecture was popular and rock cut architecture became solidified.[6] Guard rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.[6] Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber.[6] The Indian gateway archs, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.[9] Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE - 11 century CE).[10]

Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 CE.[11] Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) took place.[11] The city of Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the predecessors of the step well.[12] As many as 700 wells, constructed by 3rd millennium BCE, have been discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[12] Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as Ajatna and Ellora.[6]

Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used arched windows and doors are important features of the architecture during this period.[6] The Indian emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE.[13] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272—231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[14] Buddhist architecture blended with Roman architecture and Hellenestic architecture to give rise to unique blends—such as the Greco-Buddhist school.[15]

Early Common Era—High Middle Ages (200 CE—1200 CE)

The temple complex at Khajuraho—adhering to the shikhara temple style architecture—is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Further information: Dravidian architecture, Architecture of Bengal, Western Chalukya architecture, and Badami Chalukya Architecture

Universities—housing thousands of teachers and students—flourished at Nalanda and Valabhi between the 4th-8th centuries.[16] South Indian temple architecture—visible as a distinct tradition during the 7th century CE—is described below:[17]

The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maṇḍapa, or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial.

North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century.[18] Richly decorated temples—including the complex at Khajuraho—were constructed in Central India.[18] Indian traders bought Indian architecture to South east Asia through various trade routes.[15]

Late Middle Ages (1100 CE—1526 CE)

Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance, Belur temple.
Further information: Hoysala architecture and Vijayanagara architecture

Vijayanagara Architecture of the period (1336 - 1565 CE) was a notable building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of South India from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.[19] The architecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority.[20] This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently not only in temples but also in administrative structures across the deccan.[21] The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.[22]

Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata, today's Karnataka, India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries.[23] Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.[24] A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites.[25] About a 100 Hoysala temples survive today.[26]

Islamic influence and Mughal Era (1526 CE-1857 CE)

In the August of 1604 CE the construction of the Harmandir Sahib—the holiest shrine of the Sikh religion—was completed.
Further information: Mughal architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture

Mughal tombs of sandstone and marble show Persian influence.[27] The Red Fort at Agra (1565–74) and the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri (1569–74) are among the architectural achievements of this time—as is the Taj Mahal, built as a tomb for Queen Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan (1628–58).[27] Employing the double dome, the recessed archway, white marble and parks while stressing on symmetry and detail was visible during the reign of Shah Jahan.[28] Quranic verses were described on the walls of the buildings.[1] However, the depiction of any living being—an essential part of the pre-Islamic tradition of India—was forbidden under Islam.[1]

Some scholars hold that cultural contact with Europe under Manuel I of Portugal (reign: October 25, 1495—December 13, 1521) resulted in exchange of architectural influences.[29] Little literary evidence exists to confirm the Indian influence but some scholars have nonetheless suggested a possible relation based on proximity of architectural styles.[29]

Colonial Era (1857 CE—1947 CE)

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (completed 1897) , formerly Victoria Terminus.
Further information: Indo-Saracenic

European colonialism bought with it a wide array of influences to further shape Indian architecture.[1] Imperial power was stressed by using grand buildings.[1] Local craftsmen incorporated new skills and added them to their trade.[1] Colonial architecture became assimilated into India's diverse traditions.[1] Other innovations made during the European Industrial Revolution came with the British Raj to India.[1]

The European involvement in India through the 1920s and the 1930s brought architect Le Corbusier and the Art Deco movement to India.[30] Fusion has been a consistent feature of modern Indian architecture—for example Indian elements of chhajja (wide roof overhangs), jaali (circular stone apertures) and chhatri (free-standing pavilions) were intermixed with European architecture during the construction of the Rastrapati bhavan.[30] This neoclassical project—which also contained a stupa like dome—was overseen by Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens and the Indian Institute of Architects (est. 1920).[30]

Republic of India (1947 CE—present)

Jawahar Kala Kendra, designed by Charles Correa, in Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Further information: List of World Heritage Sites in India and Category:Indian architecture

In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India.[31] Urban housing in India balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.[32] Indian government has accepted World Trade Organisation’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), enabling foreign architects to practice in India, and thereby adding to the plurality of Indian building traditions.[31] Growing awareness of ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.[33]

Indian buildings reflect India's culture and myths.[31] Jawahar Kala Kendra at Jaipur, a Charles Correa design—for example— represents the layout of a mandala.[31] Raj Jadhav (2007) notes the position of traditional Vastu Shastra in modern Indian architecture:[31]

The ancient Indian architectural text of Vastu Shastra is widely used in modern Indian architecture for planning houses, residential complexes, office, commercial, industrial and other building types. The principles of Vastu Shastra regulate planning and design specifics from town planning to the furniture layout of a room. The stipulations are said to be governed by ancient empirical knowledge of the human body and its relation to the earth and the cosmos. Following these stipulations, it is said, ensures overall human well-being. Hence, a client with a belief in Vastu Shastra will choose a plot of land and locate the functions and elements of a building using the guidelines of this text. Architects and clients consult specialists in Vastu Shastra and then agree upon a design. The belief in this ancient body of knowledge is experiencing a rapid revival.

Security is a main concern in government buildings.[34] The architecture of these buildings lays emphasis on security precautions.[34] One method of achieving that may be designing separate entrances for separate user groups.[34] The VIP entrances and exits can have required security arrangements for ensuring safety.[34]

Concentricity has been employed in Indian architecture since millennia.[35] The plan of early buildings aligned them to a spiritual motif corresponding to cosmological imagination.[35] The concentric feature of Indian architecture is common to buildings of various regions and cultures within India—notable examples being various Hindu temples, the Taj Mahal, and buildings constructed according to Rajasthani architecture.[35] This plan is divided into various parts by the designer who uses concentric placing of these parts in his construction.[35] Modern Indian architects continue to use and incorporate this feature in buildings—for example in the Indian Parliament Library or the Vidhan Sabha (Bhopal).[35][36]

A significant feature of India's architecture is the courtyard.[37] Klaus-Peter Gast (2007) elaborates on the significance of courtyards in India:[37]

The courtyards also take up an old Indian architectural motif whereby the courtyard provides light and air for the rooms directly in this hot climate, and people are able to spend time outside or inside according to the time of day. The courtyard is also the classical symbol of something shared, a place where people meet, spend time with each other and live together. This aspect is emphasised in the courtyard for the general public, which is placed immediately inside the entrance and constructed in the form of a Kund, a large area of stone steps. Here people spend their waiting time together almost as if in a state of communal meditation. A waiting area that would be completely inconceivable in Western culture functions as a “think tank” here, with the ambience of waiting stimulating communal reflection.

Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing its significance as of late.[38] Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region.[38] Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.[38] Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.[32] Calico, chintz, and palampore—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.[39]

Gallery

The Sé Cathedral of Santa Catarina—located in Old Goa—is a cathedral dedicated to Catherine of Alexandria.

The North Block in New Delhi houses key government offices, built along with Lutyens' Delhi.

Chandigarh Secretariat designed by Le Corbusier.

See also

Sister project Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Architecture of India

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m See Raj Jadhav, pp. 7-13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
  2. ^ Possehl (1996)
  3. ^ a b Rodda & Ubertini, 279
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Teresi, 351-352
  5. ^ Rodda & Ubertini, 161
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Chandra (2008)
  7. ^ Singh & Yadava, 508
  8. ^ a b c Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), Pagoda.
  9. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), torii
  10. ^ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), torii.
  11. ^ a b Livingston & Beach, xxiii
  12. ^ a b Livingstone & Beach, 19
  13. ^ Piercey & Scarborough (2008)
  14. ^ See Stanley Finger (2001), Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function, Oxford University Press, p. 12, ISBN 0195146948.
  15. ^ a b Moffett etc., 75
  16. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), education, history of.
  17. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), South Indian temple architecture.
  18. ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), North Indian temple architecture.
  19. ^ See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, p. 132.
  20. ^ See Carla Sinopoli, Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as Historical Memory, p. 26.
  21. ^ See Carla Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350-1650, p. 209.
  22. ^ See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, p. 182.
  23. ^ MSN Encarta (2008), Hoysala_Dynasty
  24. ^ See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, p. 134.
  25. ^ The Hindu (2004), Belur for World Heritage Status.
  26. ^ Foekema, 16
  27. ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), Mughal architecture.
  28. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2008), Shāh Jahān period architecture.
  29. ^ a b Lach, 57-62
  30. ^ a b c Gast, 19
  31. ^ a b c d e See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
  32. ^ a b Gast, 77
  33. ^ Gast, 119
  34. ^ a b c d Gast, 27-29
  35. ^ a b c d e Gast, 45
  36. ^ Gast, 27
  37. ^ a b Gast, 29
  38. ^ a b c See Raj Jadhav, 13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
  39. ^ Savage 2008

References

  • Chandra, Pramod (2008), South Asian arts, Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Foekema, Gerard (1996), A Complete Guide to Hoysaḷa Temples, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170173450.
  • Gast, Klaus-Peter (2007), Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India, Birkhäuser, ISBN 9783764377540.
  • Lach, Donald F. (1993), Asia in the Making of Europe (vol. 2), University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226467309.
  • Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India, Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1568983247.
  • Moffett etc. (2003), A World History of Architecture, McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0071417516.
  • Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold (2008), hospital, Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Possehl, Gregory L. (1996), "Mehrgarh", Oxford Companion to Archaeology edited by Brian Fagan, Oxford University Press.
  • Rodda & Ubertini (2004), The Basis of Civilization-Water Science?, International Association of Hydrological Science, ISBN 1901502570.
  • Savage, George (2008), interior design, Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350-1650, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521826136.
  • Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), "Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as Historical Memory", Archaeologies of memory edited by Ruth M. Van Dyke & Susan E. Alcock, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 063123585X.
  • Singh, Vijay P. & Yadava, R. N. (2003), Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water and Environment, Allied Publishers, ISBN 817764548X.
  • Teresi, Dick (2002), Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0684837188.

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Sovereign
states

Afghanistan · Armenia1 · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma2 · Cambodia · People's Republic of China · Cyprus1 · East Timor3 · Egypt4 · Georgia4 · India · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan4 · North Korea · South Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia4 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Republic of China5 · Thailand · Turkey4 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories

Aceh · Adjara1 · Abkhazia1 · Akrotiri and Dhekelia · Altai · British Indian Ocean Territory · Buryatia · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Inner Mongolia · Iraqi Kurdistan · Jakarta · Khakassia · Macau · Nagorno-Karabakh · Nakhchivan · Ningxia · Northern Cyprus · Palestine (Gaza Strip · West Bank) · Papua · Sakha · South Ossetia1 · Tibet · Tuva · West Papua · Xinjiang · Yogyakarta
Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country.  1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions.  2 Officially known as Myanmar.  3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste.  4 Transcontinental country.  5 Commonly known as Taiwan. 

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Copyrights:

Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/  Read more
Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Architecture of India".  Read more

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