Islam in Myanmar

 

The factual accuracy of this article is disputed.

It has been suggested that History of arrival of Islam in Burma be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

History

Main article History of arrival of Islam in Burma/Myanmar

Forefathers

The first Muslims had landed in Myanmar / Burma’s Ayeyarwady River delta, Tanintharyi coast and Rakhine as seamen in ninth century, prior to the establishment of the first Myanmar (Burmese) empire in 1055 AD by King Anawrahta of Bagan or Pagan. ^{[1][2] [3][4][5]}The dawn of the Muslim settlements and the propagation of Islam was widely documented by the Arab, Persian, European and Chinese travelers of Ninth century.^{[6] [7]}The current population of Myanmar Muslims are the descendants of Arabs, Persians, Turks, Moors, Indian-Muslims, Pakistanis, Pathans, Bengalis, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled and intermarried with local Burmese and many ethnic Myanmar groups such as, Rakhine, Shan, Karen, Mon etc.^[8][9]

The population of the Muslims increased during the British rule of Burma because of new waves of Indian Muslim Immigration. ^[10]This sharply declined in the years following 1941 as a result of the Indo-Burman Immigration agreement,^[11]and was officially stopped following Burma's (Myanmar) independence on 4th January, 1948.

Muslims arrived in Burma as travelers, adventurers, pioneers, sailors, traders,^[12]Military Personals (voluntary and mercenary)^[13], and a number of them as prisoners of wars.^[14] Some were reported to have taken refuge from wars, Monsoon storms and weather, shipwreck ^[15]and for a number of other circumstances. Some are victims of forced slavery ^[16]but many of them are professionals and skilled personals such as advisors to the kings and at various ranks of administration whilst others are port-authorities and mayors and traditional medicine men.^[17]

Persian Muslims traveled over land, in search of China, and arrived northern Burma at Yunnan (China) border. Their colonies were recorded in Chronicles of China in 860 AD.^[18][19] Myanmar Muslims were sometimes called Pathi, and Chinese Muslims are called Panthay. ^[20]It is widely believed that those names derived from Persi (Persian). Bago / Pegu, Dala, Thanlyin / Syriam, Taninthayi /Tenasserim, Mottama / Martaban, Myeik / Mergui and Pathein /Bassein were full of Burmese Muslim settlers and they outnumbered the local Burmese by many times. In one record, Pathein was said to be populated with Pathis.^[21] In Kawzar 583 (13th Century), Bassein or Pathein was known as Pathi town under the three Indian Muslim Kings. ^{[22] [23] [24]} Arab merchants arrived Martaban, Margue. Arab settlement in the present Meik’s mid-western quarters. ^[25]

During Bagan King, Narathihapate, 1255-1286, in the first Sino Burman war, Kublaikhan’s Muslim Tatars attacked and occupied up to Nga Saung Chan. Mongols under Kublai Khan invaded the Pagan Kingdom. During this first Sino Burman war in 1283, Colonel Nasruddin’s Turks occupied up to Bamaw. (Kaungsin)^[26] (Tarek) Turk were called, Mongol, Manchuria, Mahamaden or Panthays. ^[27]

Muslims in Bagan (Pagan) Period

Byat Wi and Byat Ta

The first evidence of Muslim landing in Burma’s chronicle was recorded in the era of the first Burmese Empire of Pagan (Bagan) 1044 AD. Two Arab Muslim sailors of BYAT family, Byat Wi and Byat Ta, arrived Burmese shores, near Thaton.^[28][29](There are people in Iraq, Arabia and some Surthi Northern Indian Muslims with the same sir name even at present. See Byat and Bayt) After their ship wrecked, they managed to use a plank to swim to the shores. They took refuge and stayed at the monastery of the monk in Thaton. Thaton king became afraid of them and killed the elder brother. ^[30] The younger brother managed to escape to Bagan and took refuge to king Anawratha. ^[31] He married a girl from Popa and got two sons, Shwe Byin brothers.^[32]

Shwe Byin brothers

Later they also served the king as worriers,^[33] even as the special agents to infiltrate the enemy’s inner circle. They were famous after they successfully infiltrated the Chinese King Utibua’s bodyguards. That event forced the Chinese to sign a peace agreement with the Burmese.^[34][35]

After the war, on the way back home, they refused to contribute in the building of a pagoda at Taung Byone^[36], just north of Mandalay. The brothers’ enemies left vacant the spaces for the two bricks so that the king could notice. After a brief inquiry the king ordered to punish the brothers for disobedience but they were later given death sentence. ^[37]

The royal raft could not move after that. Brahmans, royal consultants interpreted that, the two brothers were loyal faithful servants but unjustly punished, became Nat (spirit) and they pulled the rudder of the royal boat to show their displeasure. Then only, Anawratha ordered the building of the spirit-palace at Taung Byone and ordered the people to worship the two brothers.^[38]

For five days each year Taung Byone village becomes a fairground. Taung Byone, 14 km north of Mandalay, has about 7,000 nat shrines, nearly 2,000 of them elaborate ones dedicated to those two brothers. ^[39][40]

King Anawratha 1044-1077 AD also had Myanmar Muslim army units and body guards. When King Anawrahta attacked Martaban, capital of Mon (Talaing) King, Mingyi Swa Saw Kae’, two Muslim officers’ army unit fiercely defended against his attack.^[41]

Nga Yaman Kan

The King Anawrahta appointed a Muslim Arab ^[42] as a Royal teacher for his son, Prince Sawlu. That teacher’s son later became the Governor of Bago (Pegu) known as Ussa City. ^[43] His name was Raman Khan.^[44] (Known as Nga Yaman Kan in Burmese). King Sawlu himself had given the town to his childhood friend, also an adopted brother because they were fed from the same breast as Raman Khan’s mother was the wet nurse of Prince Sawlu.^[45]

Once Raman Khan won the game of dice, jumped with joy and clapped the elbows. King Sawlu was angry and challenged Rahman Khan to rebel against him with the Bago province. Raman Khan accepted the challenge and successfully trapped King Sawlu and his army in swamps.^[46]Kyanzittha tried to rescue but Sawlu refused to be rescued and was later killed by Raman Khan. Rahman Khan himself was ambushed by the sniper bow-shot of Nga Sin the hunter and died.

Kyanzittha became the third king of Bagan Dynasty. While expending the empire he brought back many Indian-Muslim captives. They were settled in central Burma.^[47]

Muslim sailors and traders

In the chronicles of Malaysia, during the first Melacca Empire of Parameswara in the early fifteenth century, it was recorded the Burmese (Muslims) sailors and traders were regularly arriving there. [26] Those Bago (Pegu) seamen, likely to be Muslims, were also recorded by the Arab Historians of tenth century. During fifteen to seventeen centuries, there were a lot of records of Burmese Muslim traders, sailors and settlers on the whole coast of Burma. That was from Arakan coast (Rakhine), Ayeyarwady delta and Tanintharyi coast (Including all the islands along the whole coast).^[48]

During Peik Thaung Min (early Bagan dynasty, 652-660 AD), Arab travelers from Madagascar to China through East Indian Islands, visited Thaton and Martaban ports. It was recorded in Arab chronicles in 800 AD. ^[49]

In seventeenth century, those Muslims controlled the business and became so powerful because of their wealth. They were even appointed as Governor of Mergui, the Viceroy of the Province of Tenasserim, Port Authorities, Port Governors and Shah-bandars (senior port officials). ^{[50] [51][52]}

Muslim sailors built many mosques, but those should be more appropriately called Temples as they were equally holy to Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus and Chinese. They were called Buddermokan, The so called Buddermokan on Sittway island is claimed by believers of different faiths. ... ‘Buddermokan’ ^[53][54][55] in memory to Badral-Din Awliya, a saint. They are found in Akyab, Sandoway and on a small island off Mergyi. ^[56]

Sa Nay Min Gyi King (King Sane) had two flotillas of Steam-ships, named Alarhee and Selamat, both are Arabic Islamic names. In 1711, Myanmar Missionary was sent to Mogul King Shah Alam. They used the Alarhee Ship and the captain was an Arab. ^[57]

Muslim prisoners of war

When Tabinshwehti, TaungooKing 1530-50 AD attacked Hanthawaddy, Muslim soldiers were helping Mons with artillery. ^{[58] [59] [60]}

Ava king Anaukpetlun captured Thanlyin or Syriam in 1613 and crucified the rebel Nat Shin Naung, and Portuguese mercenary Philip de Brito. The Indian Muslim mercenaries and five battle ships were captured. Muslim prisoners of wars were settled at the north of Shwebo in Myedu, Sagaing, Yamethin and Kyaukse.^[61]

King Thalun (1629-1648)., the successor of Anaukpetlun settled those Muslims at Shwebo, Sagaing and Kyaukse. ^[62] Muslim prisoners of war were settled in upper Myanmar by successive Burmese kings. Myae Du near Shwebo was one of the sites. Muslim prisoners from Bago during 1539-1599 AD were the first settlers.

Tabinshwehti brought back the Muslim prisoners, after attacking Arakan in 1546 and 1549 AD.

King Alaungpaya attacked Assam and Manipur of India and brought back more Muslims to settle in Burma. These Muslims later assimilated to form core of Burmese Muslims.^[63]

King Sane (Sa Nay Min Gyi) brought back several thousand Muslim prisoners of war from Sandoway and settled in Myedu in 1707 AD. Next year few thousands more were settled in those places and Taungoo. 3000 Muslims from Arakan took refuge under King Sane in 1698-1714. They were divided and settled in Taungoo, Yamethin , Nyaung Yan, Yin Taw, Meiktila, Pin Tale, Tabet Swe, Bawdi, Syi Tha, Syi Puttra, Myae du and Depayin. This Royal decree was copied from the Amarapura Royal Library in 1801 by Kyauk Ta Lone Bo. ^[64]

During King Bagyidaw 1819-37 rule, Maha Bandula conquered Assam and brought back 40,000 prisoners of war. About half of them were likely to be Muslims. ^[65] Maha Bandula and Burmese Army’s war at Ramu and Pan War were famous. Burmese captured one big cannon, 200 firearms, mixed Sepoy Indian 200. Muslims amongst them were relocated at the south of Amarapura that is Myittha river’s south. ^[66]

Royal Muslim-soldiers

When the famous Raza Dirit attacked and conquered Dagon (Yangon), Muslim soldiers defended from the Burmese side and Raza Dirit also had to use the help of Muslim sailors.^[67]

The army of King Anawratha (eleven century) already boasted Indian units and bodyguards, Muslims apparently among them. ^[68]

When Tabinshwehti attacked Martaban in 1541 AD, many Muslims resisted strongly. .^[69]

When Bayinnaung successfully conquered Ayuthaya (Thailand) in 1568-1569 AD he use the help of Muslim artillerymen. King Alaungpaya 1752-1760 AD conquered Syrim. Muslim prisoners of war were forced to serve in his army.^[70]

Pagan Min 1846-1853 AD appointed U Shwe Oh , a Burmese Muslim, as the Governor of the Capital city, Amarapura. His personal secretary U Paing (also a Burmese Muslim) donated a two- mile long bridge, made of teakwood across the Taung Tha Man Lake. In 1850, the Governor of Bagan was also said to be a Muslim.^[71]

Burmese kings employed a lot of Muslims in his inner circle: Royal bodyguards, eunuchs, couriers, interpreters and advisers.^{[72] [73]}

Muslims in Konbaung Dynasty

Muslims in Amarapura

Muslims in Amarapura were about 20,000 families, at the time of Innwa (Ava) kingdom (1855 AD). Most of them were Sunni Muslims. ^[74]

During the Konbaung dynasty Alaungpaya’s attack of Mons near Pyay, Mon warrior Talapan was assisted by Muslim soldiers. Because of their artillery fire, a lot of Burmese soldiers were wounded and died. ^[75]

In 1755 Alaungpaya conquered Dagon and renamed it Yangon (meaning 'The End of Strife'). Mon soldiers surrendered and four Muslim rich men also surrendered with the expensive presents, ammunitions and four warships. ^[76] Although conquered Yangon there are more battles to fight with Mons. So Alaungpaya rearranged the army. Pyre Mamet was one of the “Thwe Thauk Gyi” assigned to serve as the Royal Bodyguard. ^[77]Alaungpaya attacked Thanlyin or Syriam, and many Muslim artillery men were captured. ^[78]Alaungpaya captured four warships and Muslim soldiers. They were later allowed to serve him. ^[79] On the page 203 of the Twin Thin Teik Win’s Chronicles of Alaungpaya’s battles, it was recorded as only three warships.

After Alaungpaya captured Pegu, and at the parade, those Pathi Muslim soldiers were allowed to march with their traditional uniforms. ^[80] Four hundred Pathi Indian soldiers participated in the Royal Salute March. ^{[81] [82]}

King Bodawpaya Bodaw U Wine (Padon Mayor, Padon Min) (1781-1819) of the Konbaung Dynasty founded Amarapura as his new capital in 1783. He was the first Burmese King who recognized his Muslim subjects officially by the following Royal decree. He appointed Abid Shah Hussaini and assistants, Nga Shwe Lu and Nga Shwe Aye to decide and give judgment regarding the conflicts and problems amongst his Burmese Muslim subjects. ^[83] Abid Shah Hussaini burial place was well known as a shrine in Amarapura Lin Zin Gone Darga.

Before Ramu and Pan War battles, Captain Nay Myo Gone Narrat Khan Sab Bo’s 70 Cavalry (horse) Regiment's marching among the Burmese army, was watched by Maha Bandula. ^[84]Burmese Muslim Horsemen were famous in that Khan Sab Bo’s 70 Cavalry (horse) Regiment. Khan Sab Bo’s name was Abdul Karim Khan and was the father of the Captain Wali Khan, famous Wali Khan Cavalry Regiment during King Mindon and King Thibaw.

Khan Sab Bo was sent as an Ambassador to Indo China by Bagyidaw. During Bagyidaw’s reign, in 1824, Gaw Taut Pallin battle was famous. British used 10,000 soldiers but defeated. During that battle Khan Sab Bo’s 100 horsemen fought vigorously and bravely. ^[85]More than 1300 loyal brave Kala Pyo Muslims (means young Indian soldiers) were awarded with colourful velvety uniforms. ^[86]

When Konbaung Dynasty’s 8th. Tharrawaddy Min (King) marched Okkalapa, more than 100 Pathi Muslim Indian Cannoners took part. ^[87] There are also a lot of Muslim soldiers in other parts of the Tharrawaddy Min’s army.

But during the Konbaung Dynasty’s 9th. Pagan Min 1846-52 there was a blemish in Muslim’s history. Royal Capital Amarapura’s Mayor Bai Sab and his clerk U Pain were arrested and sentenced to death.

King Mindon

During Pagan Min reign, Mindon Prince and brother Ka Naung Prince run away with their servants to Shwebo and started a rebellion. U Bo and U Yuet were the two Muslims who accompanied the princes. Some Kala Pyo Burmese Muslim artillery soldiers followed them. ^[88]U Boe later built and donated the June Mosque, which is still maintained in 27th. street, Mandalay. U Yuet became the Royal Chief Chef.

Regent Prince Ka Naung sent scholars to study abroad. Malar Mon @ U Pwint was a Burmese Muslim sent to study the explosives. He became the Yan Chet won or Minister of explosives.

In the Royal Defence Army, many Cannoners were Kindar Kala Pyos and Myedu Muslims. ^[89]

In 1853 King Mindon held a donation ceremony. He ordered to prepare halal food for his Muslim soldiers from, Akbart Horse Cavalry, Wali Khan Horse Cavalry, Manipur Horse Cavalry and Sar Tho Horse Cavalry altogether about 700 of them.

U Soe was the Royal tailor of King Mindon . ^[90]

Kabul Maulavi was appointed an Islamic Judge by King Mindon to decide according to the Islamic rules and customs on Muslim affairs.

Captain Min Htin Min Yazar’s 400 Muslims participated to clear the land for building a new Mandalay city.

Burmese Muslims were given specific quarters to settle in the new city of Mandalay^[91]

1. Sigaing dan
2. Kone Yoe dan
3. Taung Balu
4. Oh Bo
5. Setkyer Ngwezin
6. June Amoke Tan
7. Wali Khan Quarter
8. Taik Tan Qr
9. Koyandaw Qr (Royal Bodyguards’ Qr)
10. Ah Choke Tan
11. Kala Pyo Qr
12. Panthay dan for the Burmese Chinese Muslims. ^[92]

In those quarters, lands for 20 Mosques were allocated out side the Palace wall. ^{[93] [94]}

1. Sigaing dan Mosque
2. Kone Yoe Mosque
3. Taung Balu Mosque
4. June Mosque
5. Koyandaw Mosque
6. Wali Khan Mosque
7. Kala Pyo Mosque
8. Seven lots of lands for Setkyer Ngwezin
9. King Mindon donated his palace teak pillars to build a mosque at North Obo in central Mandalay. (The pillars which failed to place properly at the exact time given by astrologers.)
10. The broadminded King Mindon also permitted a mosque to be built on the granted site for the Panthays (Burmese Chinese Muslims)^[95][96] Photos of Mandalay Panthay mosque.[27]

Inside the Palace wall, for the Royal Body Guards, King Mindon himself donated and started the building of the Mosque by laying the Gold foundation at the South-eastern part of the Palace located near the present Independent Monument. This Mosque was called the Shwe Pannet Mosque. That mosque was destroyed by the British to build the Polo playground.

King Mindon (1853-78) donated the rest house in Mecca for his Muslim subjects performing Hajj.^[97] Nay Myo Gonna Khalifa U Pho Mya and Haji U Swe Baw were ordered to supervise the building. The Kind donated the balance needed to complete the building which was started with the donations from the Burmese Muslims. This was recorded in the Myaedu Mosque Imam U Shwe Taung’s poems.^[98]

King Thibaw

Muslim soldiers who participated in the Royal Parade during King Thibaw’s reign were_

1. Captain Bo Min Htin Kyaw and his 350 Kindar Kala Pyo artillery soldiers.
2. Setkyer Cannon Regiment Captain Hashim and 113 Cannoners
3. Mingalar Cannon Regiment Captain U Kye and 113 Cannoners
4. Mingalar Amyoke Sulay Kone Captain U Maung and 113 Cannoners
5. Mingalar Amyoke Bone Oh Captain U Yauk and 113 Cannoners. ^[99]

After King Thibaw’s declaration of war on the British, Burmese Army formed three groups to descend and defend the British attack. One of those, Taung Twingyi defence chief was, Akhbat Horse Calvery Chief, Mayor of Pin Lae Town, Minister Maha Min Htin Yar Zar. His name was U Chone when he was the Chief Clerk of Kala Pyo Army. During the Myin Kun Myin Khone Tain revolt, he carried the Chief queen of Mindon on his back to safety. So he was rewarded with the Mayor position of Pin Lae Myo which was located 12 miles south of Myittha. ^[100]

Under Maha Min Htin Yar Zar there were 1629 soldiers:

1. Kindar Captain Bo Min Hla Min Htin Kyaw Thu’s 335 Kindar soldiers two cannon and Sein let Yae 3 regiments
2. Shwe Pyi Captain Bo Min Hla Min Htin Thamain Than Like and Shwe Pyi 100 soldiers, one cannon and Sein let Yae 2 regiments
3. Wali Khan’s 990 Akhbat Horse Calvery and Sein let Yae 20 regiments
4. Specially trained 200 soldiers.^[101]

On 28 November 1885, after the British took over the administration, the British revamp the new administration with, Kin Won Min Gyi, Tai Tar Min Gyi, the Minister Maha Min Htin Yar Zar U Chone was included as the representative of the Parliament.

Muslim Mogul Emperor of India

The last Muslim Mogul Emperor of India, Abu Za’far Saraj al-Din Bahadur Shah and his family members and some followers were exiled to Yangon, Myanmar. He died in Yangon and was buried on 7.11.1862.^[102]
After the British took over the whole Burma all sub groups of Burmese-Muslims formed numerous organizations, active in social welfare and religious affairs.

Mosques in Yangon

1.Surtee Mosque

Surtee mosque is situated in Mogul Road and is one of the biggest mosques in Yangon. It was built by Surtees who migrated from India during the World War II. The mosque displays architecture that's similar to the mosques in India. Most people who pray in this mosque are surtees. Most weddings that take place in this mosque are those of the surtees and the chief reason why the surtees have their marriage in this mosque is because the way the mosque is built reflects their own culture. The mosque has constant renovations, but the basic architecture is never changed.

2.Rakine Jamae Mosque(Arakan Mosque)

Rakine Jame Mosque is situated in Yangon. It is located in 130th street in Mingalar Townyunt Township. It is one of the biggest mosque in Yangon. The mosque was built at the time of Burmese King Dynasty. The exact time is still unknown. Rakine Mosque was established by the people(Arakans) who came from Rakhine state (a state of Myanmar). These people gave the name of the mosque as Arakan Mosque. However this name was changed into Rakhine Mosque.

Demographics

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Various groups of Myanmar Muslims

• Muslims are spread across the country in small communities. The Indian-descended Muslims live mainly in Rangoon. See Burmese Indian Muslims.
• Another notable Muslim group are the Arakan-based Rohingya people, classified as "Bengali Muslims" due to their ancestral connection with Bengal.
• Panthay (Burmese Chinese Muslims).
• Pashu or Moken

Religion and society

The Supreme Court of Rangoon

The Lordship of the Supreme Court of Rangoon remarked: “... Today, in the various parts of Burma, there are people who, because of the origin and the isolated way of life, are totally unlike the Burmese in appearance of speak of events which had occurred outside the limits of their habitation. They are nevertheless statutory citizens under the Union (of Burma) Citizenship Act..... Thus mere race or appearance of a person or whether he has a knowledge of any language of the Union is not the test as to whether he is a citizen of the Union”.^[103]

Democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has said that she has a great respect for other religions.

Myanmar Ministry of Religious Affairs’ official declaration

Myanmar Ministry of Religious Affairs’ official declaration about the Freedom of Religion in Myanmar[28]

All ethnic groups, in Myanmar have been having throughout the country since time immemorial. They have been living united in peace and harmony since the time of ancient Myanmar kings. Myanmar kings, in return, looked after the members of other religious faiths by kindly giving them religious, social and economic opportunities equally with Buddhists. It is well known that, in order to enable his Majesty’s royal servants to fulfill their religious duties, Rakhine frame Mosque, Half-broken Mosque, Panthe Mosque, Mandalay Battery Ward Mosque and Christian Churches were allowed to build and perform respective religious duties during successive Myanmar kings. The Parton of the Fifth Buddhist Syncd, King Mindone (1854 to 1878), during his rule built a Peacock rest house in the Holy City of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, for the Muslims from Myanmar who went there on Haj pilgrimage to stay comfortably while they were there for about one and a half months. It is the most glaring testimony in Myanmar history of how Myanmar kings looked after their Muslim subjects benevolently.^[104]

Since the time ancient Myanmar kings until the present day, successive Myanmar governments have given all four major religions an equal treatment. All the followers of each religion have been allowed to profess their respective religious faith and perform their respective duties freely. Myanmar’s culture is based on loving kindness; the followers of Islam, Christianity and Hinduism in Myanmar are also kind-hearted people as Myanmar Buddhists are.

Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar

Further information: Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar

The first Muslim recorded in Burmese history

The first Muslim documented in Burmese history (recorded in Hmannan Yazawin or Glass Palace Chronicle) was Byat Wi during the Mon, Thaton King's reign. (It was at about 1050 AD). He was killed not because he was a Muslim but because the king was worried about of his strength. ^[105]

Shwe Byin brothers Martyred

The second two persons killed later were his nephews. The two sons of his brother Byat Ta, known as Shwe Byin brothers. These children were executed because they refused to obey the forced labour order of the king, may be because of their religious belief. ^[106]But it is sure that they were killed not because they were Muslims nor because they failed to contribute to the building of the pagoda but because the king or people walking in the corridors of powers in the royal court were worried of their popularity and skills. It was clearly recorded in the Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma that they were not trusted any more. ^[107]

Assassination of Nga Yaman Kan

Rahman Khan (Nga Yaman Kan) was another Muslim killed for political reason, because of treason to his own king and clearly not a religious persecution. It was during wartime, the famous national hero, King Kyansittha sent a hunter as a sniper to assassinate him. ^{[108] [109]}

Massacre in Arakan

Another mass killings of Muslims in Arakan may be not for the religion but likely to be due to politics and greed only. Shah Shuja’ was the second son of the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan who built the famous Taj Mahal of India. Shah Shuja’ lost to his brother and fled with his family and army in to Arakan. Sandathudama (1652-1687 AD), the Arakan King accepted and allow him to settle there. He wanted to continue to buy ships to go to Mecca and was willing to pay with silver and gold. But the Arakan king asked for his daughter and also became greedy to get all the wealth. At last after an alleged unsuccessful attempt of rebellion the sultan and all his followers were killed. All men seen with beard, the symbol of Islam, were beheaded not because they were Muslims but just easily identified from others from these features. Women were put into prison and let them die with hunger. Therefore that massacre was targeted at Muslims refugees from India not because of their religion, Islam, but for the economic or political reason.^{[110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115]}

Muslims under Bayintnaung

Muslims served under Burmese king Bayintnaung (1550-1589 AD). ^[116] In 1559 AD after conquering Bago (Pegu) he prohibited the Muslims from doing halal (killing by cutting the throat under the name of Allah) of goats and chicken. He showed some religious intolerance and had forced some of his subjects to listen to Buddhist sermons and some were even said to be converted by force. He also disallowed the Edil Adha, Kurbani sacrifice of cattle. ^[117]

Muslims under Alaungpaya

King Alaungpaya (1752-1760) prohibited Muslims to do halal on cattle. ^[118]

Bodawpaya

King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) arrested four famous Myanmar Muslims Moulvis (Imams) from Myedu and killed them in Ava, capital after they refused to eat pork. ^[119] According to the Myedu Muslims and Myanmar Muslims version there were seven dark days after that execution and the king later apologize and recognized them as saints.^[120]

Racial and religious Riots

Under British Imperialism

Imperialism gives birth to its own antithesis, the movement for national liberation among the colonial countries and the social revolutionary movement of the working-class.Communalism is a phenomenon hitherto unknown to Burma. Burmans are known abroad as hospitable people and as such, they are friendly to foreigners, especially to Indians to whose country Burma owes her cultural heritage. Racial hatred against Indians was a thing unheard of in Burma. Prior to 1930, Indians had even taken part in the movement for political independence. The Burmans on their part, also had demonstrated their solidarity with the Indian struggle for freedom. Dhobama Asi-Ayone, a nationalist organisation with socialist tendencies, the vanguard of the anti-imperialist struggle in Burma, have made various attempts to bring the two communities together. Dhobama Asi-Ayone has widened its scope by including the Indian masses. In all the workers’ struggles under the leadership of Dhobama Asi-Ayone, the Indian workers are fighting side by side with their Burmese comrades. Imperialism could not tolerate the growing solidarity of the Indians and the Burmans.^[121]

Anti Indian and anti Muslim sentiments started during British rule

Anti Indian sentiments started after the First World War during the British rule. ^[122] In Burma there were half million Muslims in 1921. More then half of Indians were Indian Muslims. ^[123] Although Myanmar Muslims are different from the Indian Muslims and Indian Myanmar Muslims, Burmese Buddhists put them together even mixed with Hindu Indians, and called them Kala.^[124]

The root of this hatred was_ ^{[125] [126]}

1. Different in religion.
2. Basic anti foreigner feelings.
3. Low standard of living of the recent migrants.
4. Recent migrants willingness to do, Dirty, Difficult and Dangerous jobs.
5. Indians took over the Burmese lands especially Chittiers.
6. Indians had already filled up and monopolized the government services when the Burmese were later ready for those jobs.
7. Professional competition.
8. World economic recession of 1930 aggravated the competition for the reduced economic pie.

1930 anti-Indian riots

In 1930 there was an anti-Indian riots in Burma under British rule.

The problem started in Yangon port, because of the irresponsible action of the British firm of Stevedores. It had employed hundreds of Indian labourers. While those Indians were on strike, that firm had employed the Burmese workers just to break the strike. So the Indians had to give in and ended the strike. Next morning when the Burmese workers came and report for work they were told by the British firm that their service was no more needed. Some of the Indian workers who were angry because they had to end the strike at failure because of these Burmese workers laughed at them. Some Burmese workers were angry and started the fight and Indians retaliate. It grew rapidly into anti Indian (including anti Muslims) riots. Even within the first half-hour at least two hundred Indians were massacred and flung into the river. Authorities ordered the police to fire upon any assembly of five or more who refuse to lay down the arms, under Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code. That was a black day of 26 May. Within two days it spread to the whole country and no one knew the exact causality. ^[127]

Anti Muslim riots in 1938

There was another anti Muslim riots in 1938, while still under British rule. The real basic hidden agenda was aimed at British Government but the Burmese dare not show this openly. The growing Nationalistic sentiments fanned by the local media disguised as anti Muslim to avoid the early detection and notice followed by the full blown force of mighty British Government machinery.Throughout the Burmese struggles against British rule, all the political issues, movements, meetings, demonstrations, riots, rebellions and even the revolutions were instigated, inspired, influenced and led by newspapers. ^{[128] [129]}

Burma for Burmese Campaign

Burmese started the Burma for Burmese only Campaign. Then marched to the Muslim (Surti) Bazar. ^[130] While the Indian Police broke the violent demonstration, three monks were hurt. Burmese Newspapers use the pictures of Indian police attacking the Buddhist monks to further incite the spread of riots.^[131] Muslim properties: shops, houses and mosques were looted, destroyed and burnt to ashes. They assaulted and even massacred the Muslims. It spreads to all over Burma and recorded that 113 mosques were damaged. ^[132]

British Official White Paper

This paragraph's basic facts are taken from Maurice Collis' "Trials in Burma". He was the judge in Rangoon, eye witnessed the riots and wrote his book based on the British Official White Paper given by, The Simon Commission. (The Royal Statutory Commission, appointed according to the Law of the Government of India1919, The Montague-Chelmsford Law.) ^[133]

The Inquiry Committee by British

On 22.9.38. British Governor set up the Inquiry Committee. ^[134] They found out that the real cause was the discontent in the government regarding the deterioration in sociopolitical and economic conditions of Burmans. ^[135] The book was used as an inciting factor by the irresponsible Burmese newspapers. ^[136] They use the anti Muslim propaganda as a disguise to cover up for the political struggle to gain independence.So the Buddhist used the Muslims as a scapegoat, for the first time, to fight against the British.

The Simon Commission (The Royal Statutory Commission, appointed according to the Law of the Government of India1919, The Montague-Chelmsford Law) to inquire the effects of Dyarchy system of ruling Burma, had recommended that special places be assigned to the Myanmar Muslims in the Legislative Council.

It recommended that full rights of citizenship should be guaranteed to all the minorities: the right of free worship, the right to follow their own customs, the right to own property and to receive a share of the public revenues for the maintenance of their own educational and charitable institutions. It recommended Home Rule or independent government separate from India or the status of dominion.

But the British Government refused to accept all those recommended except the separation, at the round table committee on India held in London in 1930.

Muslims under U Nu

AFPFL expelled Burma Muslim Congress ^[137]

The BMC, Burma Muslim Congress was founded almost at the same time with the AFPFL, Anti-Fascist Peoples’ Freedom Party of General Aung San and U Nu before World War Two. ^[138]

Prime Minister U Nu, just few months after independence of Burma, requested the Burma Muslim Congress to resign its membership from AFPFL. In response to that U Khin Maung Lat, the new President of BMC decided to discontinue the Islamic Religious activities of the BMC and rejoined the AFPFL.

U Nu removed the Burma Muslim Congress from AFPFL on 30.9.1956. BMC was asked to dissolve since 1955.

Later U Nu decreed the Buddhism as the state religion of Burma against the will of the Ethnic Minorities and various religious organizations including Myanmar Muslims.

Muslims under General Ne Win

When General Ne Win swept to power on a wave of nationalism in 1962, the status of Muslims changed for the worse. Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalized[29]. The generic racist slur of "kala" (black) used against perceived "foreigners" has especially negative connotations when referring to Burmese Muslims.[30]

The dictatorial government, which operates a pervasive internal security apparatus, generally infiltrates or monitors the meetings and activities of virtually all organizations, including religious organizations.[31] Accusations of "terrorism" are made against Muslim organizations such as the All Burma Muslim Union.[32] [33] Many Muslims have joined armed resistance groups who are fighting for greater freedoms in Myanmar.[34]

Bertil Lintner predicted the 1988 Anti-Muslim riot

Being familiar with the above usual maneuver, adopted by the Burma Military Government, Bertil Lintner, famous Sweden journalist expert on Burma, was certain that the economic failure and political dissent would be covered up by inciting anti-Muslim racial riots. The premonitions and predictions he made made since 17th. of April 1988 in the Bangkok Post, really come true within a couple of months’ time. ^[139] Myanmar Government agents managed successfully to incite the anti-Muslim riots in Taung Gyi and Prome, the native town of Ne Win. Hundreds of Muslims were killed especially in Prome. Properties of Muslims were looted or were put to the torch. Houses, shops, mosques, Muslim religious schools and even the Muslim orphanage were destroyed in those areas. The Military Intelligence chief Brigadier General Tin Oo surreptitiously launched an anti-Muslim campaign in Min Doan and Kyone Doe but that attempt, fizzled out and failed to create widespread community riots in the country. After that some of the Muslim victims fled to the east near Burma Thailand border and formed a group of Muslim freedom fighters who vowed to fight against the central Burmese Government.^[140]

Anti-Muslim Riots in Mandalay (1997)

The racial tension in March 1997 between Buddhists and Muslims and the attack on Muslim properties was apparently masterminded by the ruling regime in Burma. The bronze Buddha statue in the Maha Myatmuni pagoda, originally from the Arakan, brought to Mandalay by King Bodawpaya in 1784 AD was renovated by the authorities. The Mahamyat Muni statue was broken open, leaving a gaping hole in the statue, and it was generally presumed that the regime was searching for the Padamya Myetshin, a legendary ruby that ensures victory in war to those who possess it.^[141]

On 16 March 1997 beginning at about 3:30 p.m. a mob of about 1,000/1,500 Buddhist monks and others shouted anti-Muslim slogans without provocation of any kind on the part of the Muslims. They targeted the mosques first for attack, followed by Muslim shop-houses and transportation vehicles in the vicinity of mosques, damaging, destroying, looting, and trampling, burning the religious books, committing acts of sacrilege. The area where the acts of damage, destruction, and lootings committed in Kaingdan, Mandalay.^[142]The unrest in Mandalay allegedly began after reports of an attempted rape of a girl by Muslim men. At least three people have been killed and around 100 monks arrested. ^[143]

Anti-Muslim Riots in Taungoo(2001)

In 2001,Myo Pyauk Hmar Soe Kyauk Hla Tai (or) The Fear of Losing One's Race and many other anti-Muslim pamphlets were widely distributed by monks. Distribution of the pamphlets was also facilitated by the Union of Solidarity and Development Association (USDA). The USDA is the civilian support wing of the military regime.^[144] Many Muslims feel that this exacerbated the anti-Muslim feelings that had been provoked by the destruction in Bamiyan, Afghanistan. ^[145] The above anti-Buddhist actions of the Taliban in Afghanistan (the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan) was used as a pretext to commit violence against Muslims in Myanmar by Buddhist mobs. Human Rights Watch reports that there was mounting tension between the Buddhist and Muslim communities in Taungoo for weeks before it erupted into violence in the middle of May 2001.Buddhist monks demanded that the Hantha Mosque in Taungoo be destroyed in "retaliation" for the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan.[35] Mobs of Buddhists, led by monks, vandalized Muslim-owned businesses and property and attacked and killed Muslims in Muslim communities. ^[146]Buddhist monks demanded that the ancient Hantha Mosque in Taungoo be destroyed in retaliation for the destruction in Bamiyan.^[147] On May, 18, however, Han Tha mosque and Taungoo Railway station mosque were razed to ground by bulldozers owned by the SPDC junta..^[148]On May, 15, 2001, anti-Muslim riots broke out in Taungoo, Pegu division, resulting in the deaths of about 200 Muslims, in the destruction of 11 mosques and setting ablaze of over 400 houses. On May, 15, the first day of the anti-Muslim uprisings, about 20 Muslims who were praying in the Han Tha mosque were killed and some were beaten to death by the pro-junta forces. On May, 17, 2001, Lt. General Win Myint, Secretary No.3 of the SPDC and deputy Home and Religious minister arrived and curfew was imposed there in Taungoo. All communication lines were disconnected.^[149]The mosques in Taungoo remained closed as of May 2002. Muslims have been forced to worship in their homes. Local Muslim leaders complain that they are still harassed. After the violence, many local Muslims moved away from Taungoo to other nearby towns and as far away as Yangon. After two days of violence the military stepped in and the violence immediately ended.^[150]There also were reports that local government authorities alerted Muslim elders in advance of the attacks and warned them not to retaliate to avoid escalating the violence. While the details of how the attacks began and who carried them out were unclear by year's end, the violence significantly heightened tensions between the Buddhist and Muslim communities. ^[151]

Anti-Muslim Riots in Sittwe (2001)

There is constant tension between Buddhists and Muslims in Sittwe.The resentments are deeply rooted, and result from both communities feeling that they are under siege from the other. The violence in February 2001 flared up after an incident in which seven young monks refused to pay a Muslim stall holder for cakes they had just eaten. The Muslim seller, a woman, retaliated by beating one of the novices, said a Muslim eyewitness. Several more senior monks then came to protest and a brawl ensued, he said. One of the monks was hit over the head by the Muslim seller’s husband and started to bleed. Riots then broke out. A full- scale riot erupted after dusk and carried on for several hours. Buddhists poured gasoline on Muslim homes and properties and set them alight. More than thirty homes and a Muslim guesthouse were burned down.Police and soldiers reportedly stood by and did nothing to stop the violence initially.There are no reliable estimates of the death toll or the number of injuries. More than twenty died according to some Muslim activists. The fighting took place in the predominantly Muslim part of town and so it was predominantly Muslim property that was damaged.^[152]

Agents provocateur

While the idea of monks actually leading rioters may seem unusual, certain details make it less so. Myanmar's large and much feared MI or military intelligence service, the Directorate of Defense Security Intelligence is commonly believed to have agents working within the monkhood. The monks have always been courageous supporters of the democracy movement. It would seem that monitoring dissident monks is not their only function. Human Rights Watch also reported that monks in the 2001 riots were carrying mobile phones, a luxury not readily available to the Myanmar population - as very few without government connections can afford them. It is also reported that there was a clear split between monks who provoked violence and those who did not. It has been suggested by Human Rights Watch and others that these facts may reflect the presence of agents provocateur among the monks. ^[153]

If violence does once again break out, it will be agitators like Win Rathu at the lead. The abbot, a charismatic Burman named Win Rathu, is a highly respected leader among the Mandalay clergy whose tough talk has earned him the Hollywood-esque nickname "The Fighting Monk". He is widely accepted as the leader of a growing anti-Muslim movement. Back in Win Rathu's office, the tranquil smiling continued as he switched on a digital video camera, a Compaq PC, and an air conditioner - all incredible luxuries for anyone in this desperately poor country, and especially unusual material possessions for an avowed ascetic monk.

And this religious violence threatens to divert the world's attention from the real issue in Myanmar - the continuing deprivation of its people's prosperity by an unpopular military dictatorship. ^[154]As the world continues to glare at Myanmar's ruling junta for its ongoing oppression of the country