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Jagadish Chandra Bose

 
Scientist: Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose
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Indian plant physiologist and physicist (1858–1937)

Bose, who was born in Mymensingh (which is now in Bangladesh), began his studies in London as a medical student. He then won a scholarship to Cambridge University, from where he graduated in natural sciences in 1884. He was appointed professor of physical science at Presidency College, Calcutta, in 1885 and retained this post until 1915. In 1917 he founded and became director of the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. He was knighted in 1917 and in 1920 became the first Indian to be elected a fellow of the Royal Society.

Bose's early research was on the properties of very short radio waves – work in which he showed their similarity to light. He also designed an improved version of Oliver Lodge's coherer, then used to detect radio waves, and as a result was able to put forward a general theory of the properties of contact-sensitive materials.

His most famous work concerned his investigations into plant physiology and the similarities between the behavioral response of plant and animal tissue. By devising extremely sensitive instruments he was able to demonstrate the minute movements of plants to external stimuli and to measure their rate of growth. While his experimental skill was widely admired, this work did not at the time gain universal acceptance.

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Biography: Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose
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Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose (1858-1937) was an Indian physicist and plant physiologist who did pioneering work in the measurement of plant growth and the responsiveness of plants to external stimuli.

The life and scientific career of Jagadis Chandra Bose are rooted in the social ferment and the vital nationalism that made Bengal the intellectual center of India in the 19th century. He was born on Nov. 30, 1858, at Mymensingh (now in East Bengal), where his father was a deputy magistrate. The elder Bose sent Jagadis to the traditional village school to give him a grounding in Indian culture and then to St. Xavier's school and college in Calcutta, where a Jesuit teacher encouraged his scientific interests.

At great financial hardship to the family, Bose went to the University of London in 1880 to study medicine; after a year he transferred to Cambridge to study science. He received degrees from Cambridge in 1884 and from London in 1885. His teachers, including the famous physicist Lord Rayleigh, recognized his brilliance and recommended him to high British officials in India for employment. Bose became professor of physics at Presidency College, Calcutta. Although he encountered some discrimination as the first Indian to hold the post, within a few years he was acknowledged as a scientist of a caliber unknown before in India. At that time there was virtually no provision for scientific research in Indian universities, so his achievements were all the more extraordinary. In 1887 he married a Madras medical student, Abala Das, who shared in her husband's scientific interests.

Bose's first experiments, which concerned the transmission of electrical energy, were extensions of the work of such pioneers as James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Rudolph Hertz. This work led Bose to an interest in the possibilities of radio communication, and some of his experiments paralleled, if they did not actually precede, those of Guglielmo Marconi. Bose is said to have demonstrated radio transmission in Calcutta in 1895.

Researches in Plant Life

Bose then turned to the work that brought him his greatest fame: the measurement of the responses of plants to such stimuli as light, sound, touch, and electricity. His research convinced him that there were no clear-cut boundaries between the nervous systems of plants and of animals. To carry out his experiments, he invented the crescograph, an instrument capable of magnifying the movements of growth in plants 10 million times.

Bose's experiments brought him world fame while he was still a young man, and he made many lecture tours to the universities of Europe and America. The British government knighted him in 1916, the year after his retirement from Presidency College. The validity of his experiments was often attacked, partly on the basis of his experimental techniques, but more often because of the mystical, religious implications that he found in his research, as when he claimed that plants, like animals, adjusted to change through "inherited memory of the past." He insisted that not only could no line be drawn between plants and animals but that his researches had shown there was no line between living and nonliving matter. He felt that he had substantiated in the laboratory the Hindu religious belief that the whole universe was an aspect of the Eternal One.

Bose was deeply patriotic, and his encouragement of research in the universities and in the Bose Research Institute, which he founded in Calcutta in 1917, was a reflection of his conviction that Indians must add scientific skills to their great religious tradition. He succeeded in communicating his own enthusiasm and excitement to a new generation of students, who carried on his work. He died on Nov. 23, 1937.

Further Reading

The most interesting biography of Bose is Patrick Geddes, The Life and Work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose (1920). Geddes, a town planner and social scientist, examined Bose's life in the context of the social changes of that time. Sir Jagadish Chunder Bose: His Life, Discoveries and Writings (1921) is useful for examples of Bose's writings. Monoranjon Gupta, Jagadishchandra Bose: A Biography (1964), corrects some factual errors in Geddes's work, gives a fuller account of Bose's life, and lists Bose's numerous publications.

Additional Sources

Nandy, Ashis, Alternative sciences: creativity and authenticity in two Indian scientists, New Delhi: Allied, 1980.

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose
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Bose, Sir Jagadis Chandra, or Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose (jəgä'dēs chŭn'drə bōs, chŭn'dər), 1858-1937, Indian physicist and plant physiologist, educated in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and at Christ's College, Cambridge. He was professor of physical science (1885-1915) at Presidency College, Calcutta, and founded the Bose Research Institute in Calcutta. He is noted for his researches in plant life, especially his comparison of the responses of plant and animal tissue to various stimuli. One of his inventions is the crescograph, a device for measuring plant growth.
Occultism & Parapsychology Encyclopedia: Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose
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(1858-1937)

An Indian scientist who pioneered research into plant physiology. He was born November 30, 1858, in the village of Rarikhal in Vikrampur, East Bengal, India, and educated at Calcutta and in England at Cambridge University. His accomplishments were recognized in his election as president of the Indian Science Congress in 1927 and his being named a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. He also received many honors from scientific communities in Europe.

Bose attempted to demonstrate that the gap between living and nonliving matter was less distinct than normally supposed, and he claimed that even stones had some rate of life related to that of living organisms. In 1901 he demonstrated to the Royal Society in Britain that the responses of metals to poison and other stimuli resembled muscular response in living organisms.

In his delicate experiments with plant physiology, Bose anticipated the work of contemporary experimenters like Cleve Backster. As early as 1903 the Royal Society, London, published in their Philosophical Transactions Bose's reports of experiments with plants from which he concluded that "all the characteristics of the responses exhibited by the animal tissues, were also found in those of the plant." Bose devised sensitive apparatus to demonstrate plant reactions, many of which resembled nervous responses in animal or human life, and he even measured the electrical forces released in the death-spasms of vegetables. In 1917 Bose was knighted for his many valuable services to science. He died November 23, 1937.

From 1950 on, some of his experiments with plant sensitivity were extended by Dr. T. C. N. Singh of the Department of Botany, Annamalai University, India, who claimed that plants responded measurably to music and to prayer.

Sources:

Bose, J. C. Growth and Tropic Movements of Plants. London/ New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1929.

——. Motor Mechanisms of Plants. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1928.

——. The Nervous Mechanism of Plants. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1926.

——. The Physiology of the Ascent of Sap. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1923.

——. The Physiology of Photosynthesis. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1924.

——. Plant Autographs & Their Revelations. Washington, 1915.

——. Plant Response as a Means of Physiological Investigation. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1906.

——. Researches in Irritability of Plants. London/New York: Longmans Green and Co., 1913.

——. Response in the Living and Non-Living. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1902.

Geddes, Patrick. The Life and Work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose. London/New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1920.

Wikipedia: Jagadish Chandra Bose
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জগদীশ চন্দ্র বসু
Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, CSI, CIE, FRS

Jagadish Chandra Bose in Royal Institution, London
Born 30 November 1858(1858-11-30)
Mymensingh, East Bengal (now Bangladesh), India
Died 23 November 1937 (aged 78)
Giridih, Bengal Presidency, India
Residence India
Nationality Indian
Fields Physics, Biophysics, Biology, Botany, Archaeology, Bengali Literature, Bangla Science Fiction
Institutions Presidency College
Doctoral advisor John Strutt (Lord Rayleigh)
Notable students Satyendra Nath Bose
Known for Millimetre waves
Radio
Crescograph
Religious stance Hindu

Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose CSI CIE FRS (Bengali: জগদীশ চন্দ্র বসু Jôgodish Chôndro Boshu) (November 30, 1858 – November 23, 1937) was a Bengali polymath: a physicist, biologist, botanist, archaeologist, and writer of science fiction.[1] He pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.[2] He is considered one of the fathers of radio science,[3] and is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction. He was the first from the Indian subcontinent to get a US patent, in 1904.

Born in Bengal during the British Raj, Bose graduated from St. Xavier's College, Calcutta. He then went to the University of London to study medicine, but couldn't complete his studies due to health problems. He returned to India and joined the Presidency College of University of Calcutta as a Professor of Physics. There, despite racial discrimination and a lack of funding and equipment, Bose carried on his scientific research. He made remarkable progress in his research of remote wireless signaling and was the first to use semiconductor junctions to detect radio signals. However, instead of trying to gain commercial benefit from this invention Bose made his inventions public in order to allow others to develop on his research. Subsequently, he made some pioneering discoveries in plant physiology. He used his own invention, the crescograph, to measure plant response to various stimuli, and thereby scientifically proved parallelism between animal and plant tissues. Although Bose filed for patent for one of his inventions due to peer pressure, his reluctance to any form of patenting was well known. Now, some 71 years after his death, he is being recognised for many of his contributions to modern science.

Contents

Early life and education

Bose was born in Munshiganj District in Bengal (now in Bangladesh) on November 30, 1858. His father, Bhagawan Chandra Bose, was a Brahmo and leader of the Brahmo Samaj and worked as a deputy magistrate/ assistant commissioner in Faridpur,[4] Bardhaman and other places.[5] His family hailed from the village Rarikhal, Bikrampur, in the current day Munshiganj District of Bangladesh.[6]

Bose’s education started in a vernacular school, because his father believed that one must know one's own mother tongue before beginning English, and that one should know also one's own people.[citation needed] Speaking at the Bikrampur Conference in 1915, Bose said:

“At that time, sending children to English schools was an aristocratic status symbol. In the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. They were my playmates. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures. Perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, my mother welcomed and fed all of us without discrimination. Although she was an orthodox old fashioned lady, she never considered herself guilty of impiety by treating these ‘untouchables’ as her own children. It was because of my childhood friendship with them that I could never feel that there were ‘creatures’ who might be labelled ‘low-caste’. I never realised that there existed a ‘problem’ common to the two communities, Hindus and Muslims.”[5]

Bose joined the Hare School in 1869 and then St. Xavier’s School at Kolkata. In 1875, he passed the Entrance Examination (equivalent to school graduation) of University of Calcutta and was admitted to St. Xavier's College, Calcutta. At St. Xavier's, Bose came in contact with Jesuit Father Eugene Lafont, who played a significant role in developing his interest to natural science.[6][5] He received a bachelor's degree from University of Calcutta in 1879.[4]

Bose wanted to go to England to compete for the Indian Civil Service. However, his father, a civil servant himself, canceled the plan. He wished his son to be a scholar, who would “rule nobody but himself.”[citation needed] Bose went to England to study Medicine at the University of London. However, he had to quit because of ill health.[7] The odour in the dissection rooms is also said to have exacerbated his illness.[4]

Through the recommendation of Anand Mohan, his brother-in-law (sister's husband) and the first Indian wrangler, he secured admission in Christ's College, Cambridge to study Natural Science. He received the Natural Science Tripos from the University of Cambridge and a BSc from the University of London in 1884.[8] Among Bose’s teachers at Cambridge were Lord Rayleigh, Michael Foster, James Dewar, Francis Darwin, Francis Balfour, and Sidney Vines. At the time when Bose was a student at Cambridge, Prafulla Chandra Roy was a student at Edinburgh. They met in London and became intimate friends.[4][5]

On the second day of a two-day seminar held on the occasion of 150th anniversary of Jagadish Chandra Bose on 28-29th July at The Asiatic Society, Kolkata Professor Shibaji Raha, Director of the Bose Institute, Kolkata told in his valedictory address that he had personally checked the register of the Cambridge University to confirm the fact that in addition to Tripos he received an M.A. as well from it in 1884.

Joining Presidency College

Bose returned to India in 1885, carrying a letter from Fawcett, the economist to Lord Ripon, Viceroy of India. On Lord Ripon’s request Sir Alfred Croft, the Director of Public Instruction, appointed Bose officiating professor of physics in Presidency College. The principal, C. H. Tawney, protested against the appointment but had to accept it.[9]

Bose was not provided with facilities for research. On the contrary, he was a ‘victim of racialism’ with regard to his salary.[9] In those days, an Indian professor was paid Rs. 200 per month, while his European counterpart received Rs. 300 per month. Since Bose was officiating, he was offered a salary of only Rs. 100 per month.[10] With remarkable sense of self respect and national pride he decided on a new form of protest.[9] Bose refused to accept the salary cheque. In fact, he continued his teaching assignment for three years without accepting any salary.[11] Finally both the Director of Public Instruction and the Principal of the Presidency College fully realised the value of Bose’s skill in teaching and also his lofty character. As a result his appointment was made permanent with retrospective effect. He was given the full salary for the previous three years in a lump sum.[4]

Presidency College lacked a proper laboratory. Bose had to conduct his research in a small 24 square foot room.[4] He devised equipment for the research with the help of one untrained tinsmith.[9] Sister Nivedita wrote, “I was horrified to find the way in which a great worker could be subjected to continuous annoyance and petty difficulties ... The college routine was made as arduous as possible for him, so that he could not have the time he needed for investigation.” After his daily grind, which he of course performed with great conscientiousness, he carried out his research far into the night, in a small room in his college.[9]

Moreover, the policy of the British government for its colonies was not conducive to attempts at original research. Bose spent his hard-earned money for making experimental equipment. Within a decade of his joining Presidency College, he emerged a pioneer in the incipient research field of wireless waves.[9]

Marriage

In 1887, Bose married Abala, daughter of the renowned Brahmo reformer Durga Mohan Das. Abala was awarded Bengal government scholarship in 1882 to study medicine in Madras (now Chennai), but had to quit because of ill health.[12] At the time of their marriage Bose was in a financial crisis because of his refusal to accept his unequal salary and also because of some debts incurred by his father. The newly married couple faced privations, but managed to survive and eventually repaid the debts of Bose's father. Bose's parents lived for some years after their debts were cleared.[5]

Radio research

See also: Invention of radio

The British theoretical physicist James Clerk Maxwell mathematically predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves of diverse wavelengths, but he died in 1879 before his prediction was experimentally verified. British physicist Oliver Lodge demonstrated the existence of Maxwell’s waves transmitted along wires in 1887-88. The German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed experimentally, in 1888, the existence of electromagnetic waves in free space. Subsequently, Lodge pursued Hertz’s work and delivered a commemorative lecture in June 1894 (after Hertz’s death) and published it in book form. Lodge’s work caught the attention of scientists in different countries including Bose in India.[13]

The first remarkable aspect of Bose’s follow up microwave research was that he reduced the waves to the millimetre level (about 5 mm wavelength). He realised the disadvantages of long waves for studying their light-like properties.[13]

In 1893, Nikola Tesla demonstrated the first public radio communication.[14] One year later, during a November 1894 (or 1895[13]) public demonstration in Kolkata, Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using millimetre range wavelength microwaves.[11] Lieutenant Governor Sir William Mackenzie witnessed Bose's demonstration in the Calcutta Town Hall. Bose wrote in a Bengali essay, Adrisya Alok (Invisible Light), “The invisible light can easily pass through brick walls, buildings etc. Therefore, messages can be transmitted by means of it without the mediation of wires.”[13] In Russia, Popov performed similar experiments. In December 1895, Popov's records indicate that he hoped for distant signalling with radio waves.[15]

Bose’s first scientific paper, “On polarisation of electric rays by double-refracting crystals” was communicated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in May 1895, within a year of Lodge’s paper. His second paper was communicated to the Royal Society of London by Lord Rayleigh in October 1895. In December 1895, the London journal the Electrician (Vol 36) published Bose’s paper, “On a new electro-polariscope”. At that time, the word ‘coherer’, coined by Lodge, was used in the English-speaking world for Hertzian wave receivers or detectors. The Electrician readily commented on Bose’s coherer. (December 1895). The Englishman (18 January 1896) quoted from the Electrician and commented as follows:

”Should Professor Bose succeed in perfecting and patenting his ‘Coherer’, we may in time see the whole system of coast lighting throughout the navigable world revolutionised by a Bengali scientist working single handed in our Presidency College Laboratory.”

Bose planned to “perfect his coherer” but never thought of patenting it.[13]

In May 1897, two years after Bose's public demonstration in Kolkata, Marconi conducted his wireless signalling experiment on Salisbury Plain.[15] Bose went to London on a lecture tour in 1896 and met Marconi, who was conducting wireless experiments for the British post office. In an interview, Bose expressed disinterest in commercial telegraphy and suggested others use his research work. In 1899, Bose announced the development of a "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[16]

It appears that Bose's demonstration of remote wireless signalling has priority over Marconi.[17] He was the first to use a semiconductor junction to detect radio waves, and he invented various now commonplace microwave components. In 1954, Pearson and Brattain gave priority to Bose for the use of a semi-conducting crystal as a detector of radio waves. Further work at millimetre wavelengths was almost nonexistent for nearly 50 years. In 1897, Bose described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata at millimetre wavelengths. He used waveguides, horn antennas, dielectric lenses, various polarisers and even semiconductors at frequencies as high as 60 GHz; much of his original equipment is still in existence, now at the Bose Institute in Kolkata. A 1.3 mm multi-beam receiver now in use on the NRAO 12 Metre Telescope, Arizona, U.S.A. incorporates concepts from his original 1897 papers.[15]

Sir Nevill Mott, Nobel Laureate in 1977 for his own contributions to solid-state electronics, remarked that "J.C. Bose was at least 60 years ahead of his time" and "In fact, he had anticipated the existence of P-type and N-type semiconductors."

Plant research

His next contribution to science was in plant physiology. He forwarded a theory for the ascent of sap in plants in 1927, his theory contributed to the vital theory of ascent of sap. According to his theory, electromechanical pulsations of living cells were responsible for the ascent of sap in plants.

He was skeptical about the then, and still now, most popular theory for the ascent of sap, the tension-cohesion theory of Dixon and Joly, first proposed in 1894. The 'CP theory', proposed by Canny in 1995,[18] validates this skepticism. Canny experimentally demonstrated pumping in the living cells in the junction of the endodermis.

In his research in plant stimuli, he showed with the help of his newly invented crescograph that plants responded to various stimuli as if they had nervous systems like that of animals. He therefore found a parallelism between animal and plant tissues. His experiments showed that plants grow faster in pleasant music and their growth is retarded in noise or harsh sound. This was experimentally verified later on[citation needed].

His major contribution in the field of biophysics was the demonstration of the electrical nature of the conduction of various stimuli (wounds, chemical agents) in plants, which were earlier thought to be of a chemical nature. These claims were experimentally proved by Wildon et al. (Nature, 1992, 360, 62–65). He also studied for the first time action of microwaves in plant tissues and corresponding changes in the cell membrane potential, mechanism of effect of seasons in plants, effect of chemical inhibitor on plant stimuli, effect of temperature etc. He claimed that plants can "feel pain, understand affection etc.," from the analysis of the nature of variation of the cell membrane potential of plants, under different circumstances.

Science fiction

In 1896, Bose wrote Niruddesher Kahini, the first major work in Bangla science fiction. Later, he added the story in the Obbakto book as Polatok Tufan. He was the first science fiction writer in the Bengali language.[19]

Bose and patents

Bose was not interested in patenting his invention. In his Friday Evening Discourse at the Royal Institution, London, he made public his construction of the coherer. Thus The Electric Engineer expressed "surprise that no secret was at anytime made as to its construction, so that it has been open to all the world to adopt it for practical and possibly moneymaking purposes."[4] Bose declined an offer from a wireless apparatus manufacturer for signing a remunerative agreement. One of Bose's American friends, Sara Chapman Bull, succeeded in persuading him to file a patent application for "detector for electrical disturbances". The application was filed on September 30, 1901 and it was granted on 29 March 1904 as US patent 755840 .

Speaking in New Delhi in August 2006, at a seminar titled Owning the Future: Ideas and Their Role in the Digital Age, Dr. V S Ramamurthy, the Chairman of the Board of Governors of IIT Delhi, stressed the attitude of Bose towards patents:

"His reluctance to any form of patenting is well known. It was contained in his letter to (Indian Nobel laureate) Rabindranath Tagore dated May 17, 1901 from London. It was not that Sir Jagadish was unaware of patents and its advantages. He was the first Indian to get a US Patent (No: 755840) in 1904. And Sir Jagadish was not alone in his avowed reluctance to patenting. Roentgen, Pierre Curie and others also chose the path of no patenting on moral grounds."

Bose also recorded his attitude towards patents in his inaugural lecture at the foundation of the Bose Institute, on November 30, 1917.

Legacy

Bose’s place in history has now been re-evaluated, and he is credited with the invention of the first wireless detection device and the discovery of millimetre length electromagnetic waves and considered a pioneer in the field of biophysics.

Many of his instruments are still on display and remain largely usable now, over 100 years later. They include various antennas, polarisers, and waveguides, which remain in use in modern forms today.

Commemorating his birth centenary in 1958, the JBNSTS scholarship programme was started in West Bengal.

Publications

Journals
  • Nature published about 27 papers.
  • J. C. Bose. On Elektromotive "Wave accompanying Mechanical Disturbance in Metals in Contact with Electrolyte. Proc. Roy. Soc. 70, 273—294, 1902.
  • J. C. Bose. Sur la response electrique de la matiere vivante et animee soumise ä une excitation.—Deux proceeds d'observation de la r^ponse de la matiere vivante. Journ. de phys. (4) 1, 481—491, 1902.
Books
Other
  • J.C. Bose, Collected Physical Papers. New York, N.Y.: Longmans, Green and Co., 1927
  • Abyakta (Bangla), 1922

Honors

Notes

  1. ^ A versatile genius, Frontline 21 (24), 2004.
  2. ^ Chatterjee, Santimay and Chatterjee, Enakshi, Satyendranath Bose, 2002 reprint, p. 5, National Book Trust, ISBN 8123704925
  3. ^ A. K. Sen (1997). "Sir J.C. Bose and radio science", Microwave Symposium Digest 2 (8-13), p. 557-560.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Mahanti, Subodh. "Acharya Jagadis Chandra Bose". Biographies of Scientists. Vigyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/JCBOSE.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-12. 
  5. ^ a b c d e Mukherji, Visvapriya, Jagadish Chandra Bose, second edition, 1994, pp. 3-10, Builders of Modern India series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 8123000472
  6. ^ a b Murshed, Md Mahbub. "Bose, (Sir) Jagadish Chandra". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/B_0584.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-12. 
  7. ^ "Jagadish Chandra Bose". People. Calcuttaweb.com. http://www.calcuttaweb.com/people/jcbose.shtml. Retrieved 2007-03-10. 
  8. ^ Bose, Jagadis Chandra in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Mukherji, Visvapriya, pp.11-13
  10. ^ Gangopadhyay, Sunil, Protham Alo, 2002 edition, p. 377, Ananda Publishers Pvt. Ltd.. ISBN 8172153627
  11. ^ a b "Jagadish Chandra Bose" (PDF). Pursuit and Promotion of Science: The Indian Experience (Chapter 2). Indian National Science Academy. 2001. pp. pp.22–25. http://www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch2.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-12. 
  12. ^ Sengupta, Subodh Chandra and Bose, Anjali (editors), 1976/1998, Sansad Bangali Charitabhidhan (Biographical dictionary) Vol I, (Bengali), p23, ISBN 8185626650
  13. ^ a b c d e Mukherji, Visvapriya, pp.14-25
  14. ^ "Nikola Tesla, 1856 - 1943". IEEE History Center, IEEE, 2003. (cf., In a lecture-demonstration given in St. Louis in [1893] - two years before Marconi's first experiments - Tesla also predicted wireless communication; the apparatus that he employed contained all the elements of spark and continuous wave that were incorporated into radio transmitters before the advent of the vacuum tube.)
  15. ^ a b c Emerson, D.T. (February 1998). "The Work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 Years of MM-wave Research". IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, December 1997, Vol. 45, No. 12, pp.2267-2273. IEEE. http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose/bose.html. Retrieved 2007-03-13. 
  16. ^ Bondyopadhyay, P.K. (January 1998). "Sir J. C. Bose's Diode Detector Received Marconi's First Transatlantic Wireless Signal Of December 1901 (The "Italian Navy Coherer" Scandal Revisited)". Proceedings of the IEEE 86 (1): 259–285. doi:10.1109/5.658778. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/iel3/5/14340/00658778.pdf?arnumber=658778. Retrieved 2007-03-13. 
  17. ^ Jagadish Chandra Bose: The Real Inventor of Marconi’s Wireless Receiver; Varun Aggarwal, NSIT, Delhi, India
  18. ^ M.J. Canny, Ann. Bot., 1995, 75
  19. ^ "Symposium at Christ’s College to celebrate a genius". University of Cambridge. 2008-11-27. http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/news/dp/2008112703. Retrieved 2009-01-26. 
  20. ^ "A new name now for grand old Indian Botanical Gardens". The Hindu. 2009-06-26. http://www.thehindu.com/2009/06/26/stories/2009062657280500.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-26. 

References and general information

Books
  • G.L. Pearson, and W.H. Brattain, "History of Semiconductor Research," Proc. IRE, 43, pp.1794-1806, 1955
  • Frontiers in Biophysics, Vol. 6. Chapter "The ascent of sap", pp. 11-14.
  • Davies, E., in The Biochemistry of Plants, Academic Press, 1987b, vol. 12, pp. 243–264.
  • J.M. Payne & P.R. Jewell, "The Upgrade of the NRAO 8-beam Receiver," in Multi-feed Systems for Radio Telescopes, D.T. Emerson & J.M. Payne, Eds. San Francisco: ASP Conference Series, 1995, vol. 75, p.144
  • Fleming, J. A. (1908). The principles of electric wave telegraphy. London: New York and.
Journals
  • Canny, M. J., Ann. Bot., 1995, 75, 343–357.
  • Canny, M. J., Am. J. Bot., 1998, 85, 897–909.
  • Canny, M. J., Am. Sci., 1998, 86, 152–159
  • Wayne, R., Bot. Rev., 1994, 60, 265–367.
  • Pickard, B. G., Bot. Rev., 1973, 39, 172–201.
  • Davies, E., Plant Cell Environ., 1987a, 10, 623–631.
  • Wildon, D. C. et al., Nature, 1992, 360, 62–65.
  • Roberts, K., Nature, 1992, 360, 14–15
  • C. Schaefer and G. Gross, "Untersuchungen ueber die Totalreflexion," Annalen der Physik, vol 32, p.648, 1910.
Papers and essays

Further reading

  • The life and work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose by Patrick Geddes, Longmans London, 1920

External links

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History of Bengal · Adi Dharm · British Raj · Bengali literature · Bengali poetry · Bengali music · Brahmo Samaj · Calcutta School-book Society  · Young Bengal · British Indian Association · Swadeshi · Satyagraha · Tattwabodhini Patrika · Tagore family · Rabindra Sangeet · Rabindra Nritya Natya · Santiniketan · Socialism · Vangiya Sahitya Parishad · Sambad Prabhakar

Institutions
Anandamohan College · Asiatic Society · Banga Mahila Vidyalaya · Bangabasi College · Bethune College · Calcutta Civil Engineering College · Calcutta Madrasah College · Calcutta Medical College · Duff College · Fort William College · Free Church Institution · General Assembly's Institution · Hindu College · Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya · Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science · Indian Statistical Institute · National Council of Education, Bengal · Oriental Seminary · Presidency College · Ripon College · Sanskrit College · Rammohan College · Serampore College · School of Tropical Medicine · Scottish Church College · Vidyasagar College · Visva-Bharati University · University of Calcutta · University of Dhaka

People
Sri Aurobindo · Rajnarayan Basu · Bethune · Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay · Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay · Akshay Kumar Datta · Henry Derozio · Alexander Duff · Michael Madhusudan Dutt · Romesh Chunder Dutt · Dwarkanath Ganguly · Kadambini Ganguly · Monomohun Ghose · Ramgopal Ghosh · Aghore Nath Gupta · Roquia Sakhawat Hussain · Kazi Nazrul Islam · Eugene Lafont · Harish Chandra Mukherjee · Subodh Chandra Mullick · Sambhunath Pandit · Ramakrishna Paramahamsa · Gour Govinda Ray · Raja Ram Mohan Roy · Mahendralal Sarkar  · Brajendra Nath Seal · Girish Chandra Sen · Keshub Chandra Sen · Haraprasad Shastri  · Debendranath Tagore · Rabindranath Tagore · Satyendranath Tagore · Brahmabandhab Upadhyay · Ram Chandra Vidyabagish · Dwarkanath Vidyabhusan · Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar · Swami Vivekananda



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