Japanese architecture (日本建築, Nihon kenchiku?) has as long a
history as any other aspect of Japanese culture. Originally heavily influenced by
Chinese architecture, it also develops many differences and aspects which are
indigenous to Japan.
Prehistoric period
Reconstructed pit dwelling houses in Toro,
Shizuoka
2nd or 3th Century
There are no surviving architectures built in prehistoric times, and the oldest Japanese texts, such as Kojiki and Nihonshoki hardly mentioned the architectures at all. Excavations
and researches show these houses had thatched roofs and dirt floors. Houses in areas of high temperature and humidity had wooden
floors. With the spread of rice cultivation from China, communities became increasingly larger and more complex, and large scale
buildings for the local ruling family or rice storage houses are seen in Sannai-maruyama site
(before 2nd century BC) in Aomori or Yoshinogari
site in Saga (before 3rd century BC).
After the 3rd century, a centralized administrative system was developed and many keyhole-shaped Kofun were built in Osaka and Nara for the aristocracy. Among many examples in Nara and Osaka, the most notable is
Daisen-kofun, designated as the tomb of Emperor Nintoku. This kofun is approximately 486
by 305 m, rising to a height of 35 m.
Asuka and Nara architecture
Shōsōin at Todaiji, Nara
Built in 8th century
The earliest Buddhist structures still extant in Japan, and
the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world are found at the Hōryū-ji to the southwest
of Nara. They serve as the core examples of architecture in Asuka period. First built in the early 7th century as the private temple of Crown Prince Shotoku consists of 41 independent buildings; the most important ones, the main worship hall, or
Kondo (Golden Hall), and Goju-no-to (Five-story Pagoda), stand in the center of an open
area surrounded by a roofed cloister. The Kondo, in the style of Chinese worship halls,
is a two-story structure of post-and-beam construction, capped by an irimoya, or
hipped-gabled roof of ceramic tiles.
Temple building in the 8th century was focused around the Tōdaiji in Nara. Constructed as
the headquarters for a network of temples in each of the provinces, the Tōdaiji is
the most ambitious religious complex erected in the early centuries of Buddhist worship in Japan. Appropriately, the 16.2-m
(53-ft) Buddha (completed in 752) enshrined in the main hall, or Daibutsuden, is a Rushana Buddha, the figure that represents the essence of Buddhahood, just as the Tōdai-ji represented the
center for imperially sponsored Buddhism and its dissemination throughout Japan. Only a few fragments of the original statue
survive, and the present hall and central Buddha are reconstructions from the Edo period.
Clustered around the Daibutsuden on a gently sloping hillside are a number of secondary halls: the Hokkedo (Lotus Sutra Hall), with its principal image, the Fukukenjaku
Kannon (the most popular bodhisattva), crafted of dry lacquer (cloth dipped in lacquer and
shaped over a wooden armature); the Kaidanin (Ordination Hall) with its magnificent clay statues
of the Four Guardian Kings; and the storehouse, called the Shosoin. This last structure is of great importance as an art-historical cache, because in it are stored the
utensils that were used in the temple's dedication ceremony in 752, the eye-opening ritual for the Rushana image, as well as
government documents and many secular objects owned by the imperial family.
Heian period
In reaction to the growing wealth and power of organized Buddhism in Nara, the priest
Kūkai (best known by his posthumous title Kobo Daishi, 774-835) journeyed to China to study Shingon,
a form of Vajrayana Buddhism, which he introduced into Japan in 806. At the core of Shingon worship are the various mandalas, diagrams of the
spiritual universe which influenced temple design. Japanese Buddhist architecture also adopted the stupa in its Chinese form of pagoda.
The temples erected for this new sect were built in the mountains, far away from the court and the laity in the capital. The
irregular topography of these sites forced Japanese architects to rethink the problems of temple construction, and in so doing to
choose more indigenous elements of design. Cypress-bark roofs replaced those of ceramic tile, wood planks were used instead of
earthen floors, and a separate worship area for the laity was added in front of the main sanctuary.
In the Fujiwara period, Pure Land Buddhism,
which offered easy salvation through belief in Amida (the Buddha of the Western Paradise),
became popular. Concurrently, the Kyoto nobility developed a society devoted to elegant aesthetic pursuits. So secure and
beautiful was their world that they could not conceive of Paradise as being much different. The Amida hall, blending the secular
with the religious, houses one or more Buddha images within a structure resembling the mansions of the nobility.
The Ho-o-do (Phoenix Hall, completed 1053) of the Byodoin, a temple in Uji to the southeast of Kyoto, is the exemplar of Fujiwara Amida halls. It consists of a main rectangular
structure flanked by two L-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the edge of a large artificial pond. Inside, a
single golden image of Amida (circa 1053) is installed on a high platform. The Amida sculpture was executed by Jocho, who used a new canon of proportions and a new technique (yosegi), in which
multiple pieces of wood are carved out like shells and joined from the inside. Applied to the walls of the hall are small relief
carvings of celestials, the host believed to have accompanied Amida when he descended from the Western Paradise to gather the
souls of believers at the moment of death and transport them in lotus blossoms to Paradise. Raigo
(Descent of the Amida Buddha) paintings on the wooden doors of the Ho-o-do are an early example of Yamato-e, Japanese-style painting, because they contain representations of the scenery around Kyoto.
Kamakura and Muromachi period
After Kamakura period, Japanese political power was dominated by the armed Samurai, such as
Seiwa Genji. Their simple and sturdy ideas effected the architecture style, and many
samurai houses are mixture of shinden-dukuri and turrets or trenches.
In the Genpei War (1180-1185), many traditional architectures in Nara and Kyoto were
damaged. For example, Kofukuji and Todaiji was burned down
by Taira no Shigehira of Taira clan in 1180. Many
of these temples and shrines were rebuit in Kamakura period by Kamakura shogunate to
consolidate shogun's authority. this program was carried in so extensive scale that many of
temples and shrines built after Kamakura period were effected by these architectures.
Another major development of the period was the tea ceremony and the
tea house in which it was held. The purpose of the ceremony is to spend time with friends who
enjoy the arts, to cleanse the mind of the concerns of daily life, and to receive a bowl of tea served in a gracious and tasteful
manner. Some buddhism ideas such as Zen was the basical philosophy. The rustic style of the rural
cottage was adopted for the tea house, emphasizing such natural materials as bark-covered logs and woven straw.
Azuchi-Momoyama period
Himeji castle
Built in 16th century
Two new forms of architecture were developed in response to the militaristic climate of the times: the castle, a defensive structure built to house a feudal lord and his soldiers in times of trouble; and the
shoin, a reception hall and private study area designed to reflect the relationships of lord and
vassal within a feudal society. Himeji Castle (built in its present form 1609), popularly
known as White Heron Castle, with its gracefully curving roofs and its complex of three subsidiary towers around the main tenshu
(or keep), is one of the most beautiful structures of the Momoyama period. The Ohiroma of Nijo
Castle (17th century) in Kyoto is one of the classic examples of the shoin, with its
tokonoma (alcove), shoin window (overlooking a carefully landscaped garden), and clearly differentiated areas for the Tokugawa
lords and their vassals.
Edo period
Katsura Detached Palace, built in imitation of Prince Genji's palace, contains a cluster of shoin buildings that combine elements of classic Japanese
architecture with innovative restatements. The whole complex is surrounded by a beautiful garden with paths for walking.
The city of Edo was repeatedly struck by fires, leading to the development of a simplified architecture that allowed for easy
rebuilding. Because fires were most likely to spread during the dry winters, lumber was stockpiled in nearby towns prior to their
onset. Once a fire that had broken out was extinguished, the lumber was sent to Edo, allowing many rows of houses to be quickly
rebuilt. Due to the shogun's policy of sankin kotai ("rotation of services"), the
daimyo constructed large houses and parks for their guests' (as well as their own) enjoyment.
Kōrakuen is a park from that period that still exists and is open to the public for afternoon walks.
Meiji period
Tokyo station
Built in 1914
In the years after 1867, when Emperor Meiji ascended the
throne, Japan was once again invaded by new and alien forms of culture. By the early 20th century, European art forms were well
introduced and their marriage produced notable buildings like the Tokyo Train Station and
the National Diet Building that still exist today.
In early 1920s, modernists and expressionists began to form their groups and emerged.
kunio Maekawa and Junzo Sakakura, joined Le
Corbusier's studio in France, came back to Japan in early 1930s and designed several
buildings. Influence of modernism spread to many buildings of companies and government. In 1933,
Bruno Taut fled to Japan and his positive opinion toward Japanese architecture (especially
Katsura Imperial Villa) encouraged Japanese modernists.
See also Giyōfū architecture.
Modern architecture
As with so many other aspects of Japanese culture and society, the change to modern technology brought a quite noticeable
change in architecture as well. The need to rebuild Japan after World War II proved a great stimulus to Japanese architecture, and within a short time, the cities were
functioning again. However, the new cities that came to replace the old ones came to look very different. The current look of
Japanese cities is the result of and a contributor to 20th century architectural attitudes. With the introduction of Western
building techniques, materials, and styles into Meiji Japan, new steel and concrete
structures were built in strong contrast to traditional styles. Like most places, there is a great gap between the appearance of
the majority of buildings (generally residences and small businesses) and of landmark
buildings. After World War II, the majority of buildings ceased to be built of wood
(which is easily flammable in the case of earthquakes and bombing raids), and instead were internally constructed of steel. High
visibility landmark buildings also changed. Whereas major pre-war buildings, such as the Wako Department Store, Tokyo Station, Akasaka Palace, and the Bank of Japan were designed along
European classical lines, post-war buildings adopted the "unadorned box" style that some people love and some people hate.
Because of earthquakes, bombings, and later redevelopment, and also because of Japan's rapid economic growth from the 1950s until
the 1980s, most of the architecture to be found in the cities are from that period, which was the height of Brutalist Modern architecture generally.
However, since around the early 1990s, the situation has slowly started to change. The 1991 completion of the postmodernist
Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building was perhaps a tipping
point as far as skyscraper design went. Hot on its heels was the Yokohama Landmark
Tower. In 1996 came the much-loved Tokyo International Forum, which
besides a unique design, sported a landscaped area outside for people to relax and chat. More recently, in 2003, Roppongi Hills was opened, which borrowed ideas from previous ground-breaking designs and furthered them.
The new area of Shiodome, completely redeveloped since the late 1990s, is an excellent place to
see a group of postmodern and European-style buildings, away from the usual jumble of '60s era anonymous rectangular prisms.
Still, despite this slow but continuing trend in contemporary Japanese architecture, the vast majority of suburban areas still
exhibit cheap, uninspired designs.
The best-known Japanese architect is Kenzo Tange, whose National Gymnasiums (1964) for the Tokyo Olympics emphasizing the contrast and blending of pillars and walls, and with sweeping roofs
reminiscent of the tomo-e (an ancient whorl-shaped heraldic symbol) are dramatic statements of
form and movement.
Japan played some role in modern skyscraper design, because of its long familiarity with
the cantilever principle to support the weight of heavy tiled temple roofs. Frank Lloyd Wright was strongly influenced by Japanese spatial arrangements and the concept of
interpenetrating exterior and interior space, long achieved in Japan by opening up walls made of sliding
doors. In the late twentieth century, however, only in domestic and religious architecture was Japanese style commonly
employed. Cities sprouted modern skyscrapers, epitomized by Tokyo's crowded skyline, reflecting a
total assimilation and transformation of modern Western forms.
The widespread urban planning and reconstruction necessitated by the devastation of World War
II produced such major architects as Maekawa Kunio and Kenzo Tange. Maekawa, a student of world-famous architect Le
Corbusier, produced thoroughly international, functional modern works. Tange, who worked at first for Maekawa, supported
this concept early on, but later fell in line with postmodernism, culminating in projects such as the aforementioned Tokyo
Metropolitan Government Building and the Fuji TV Building. Both architects were notable for infusing Japanese aesthetic ideas into starkly contemporary buildings, returning to the spatial concepts and modular
proportions of tatami (woven mats), using textures to enliven the ubiquitous ferroconcrete and steel, and integrating gardens and sculpture into their designs. Tange used the
cantilever principle in a pillar and beam system reminiscent of ancient imperial palaces; the pillar--a hallmark of Japanese
traditional monumental timber construction-- became fundamental to his designs. Fumihiko Maki advanced new city planning ideas based on the
principle of layering or cocooning around an inner space (oku), a Japanese spatial concept that was adapted to urban needs. He
also advocated the use of empty or open spaces (ma), a Japanese aesthetic principle reflecting Buddhist spatial ideas. Another quintessentially Japanese aesthetic concept was a basis for Maki designs, which
focused on openings onto intimate garden views at ground level while cutting off
sometimes-ugly skylines. A dominant 1970s architectural concept, the "metabolism" of convertibility, provided for changing the
functions of parts of buildings according to use, and remains influential.
Downtown Tokyo is densely packed with polygonal multi-story buildings that squeeze right next to each other.
A major architect of the 1970s and 1980s was Isozaki Arata, originally a student and
associate of Tange's, who also based his style on the LeCorbusier tradition and then turned his attention toward the further
exploration of geometric shapes and cubic silhouettes. He synthesized Western high-technology building concepts with peculiarly
Japanese spatial, functional, and decorative ideas to create a modern Japanese style. Isozaki's predilection for the cubic grid
and trabeated pergola in largescale architecture, for
the semicircular vault in domestic-scale buildings, and for extended barrel vaulting in low, elongated buildings led to a number
of striking variations. New Wave architects of the 1980s were influenced by his designs, either pushing to extend his balanced
style, often into mannerism, or reacting against them.
A number of avant-garde experimental groups were encompassed in the New Wave of the late 1970s and the 1980s. They reexamined
and modified the formal geometric structural ideas of modernism by introducing metaphysical
concepts, producing some startling fantasy effects in architectural design. In contrast to these innovators, the experimental
poetic minimalism of Tadao Ando embodied the postmodernist concerns for a more balanced, humanistic approach than that of structural modernism's rigid formulations. Ando's buildings provided a variety of light sources, including
extensive use of glass bricks and opening up spaces to the outside air. He adapted the inner courtyards of traditional
Osaka houses to new urban architecture, using open stairways and bridges to lessen the sealed
atmosphere of the standard city dwelling. His ideas became ubiquitous in the 1980s, when buildings were commonly planned around
open courtyards or plazas, often with stepped and terraced spaces, pedestrian walkways, or bridges connecting building complexes
. In 1989 Ando became the third Japanese to receive France's prix de l'académie d'architecture,
an indication of the international strength of the major Japanese architects, all of whom produced important structures abroad
during the 1980s. Japanese architects were not only skilled practitioners in the modern idiom but also enriched postmodern
designs worldwide with innovative spatial perceptions, subtle surface texturing, unusual use of industrial materials, and a
developed awareness of ecological and topographical problems.
See also
For more information on artistic concepts, also see Japanese art.
Example of pre-modern Japanese architecture are:
Typical architectural features are:
References
External links
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