Jehovah's Witness

Jehovah's Witnesses
International headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in Brooklyn, New York
Classification	Restorationist (Christian primitivism)
Polity	Modified presbyterian polity
Organizational structure	Hierarchical
Geographical areas	Worldwide
Founder	Charles Taze Russell
Origin	1870s: Bible Student movement 1931: Jehovah's witnesses Pennsylvania and New York, USA
Branched from	Bible Student movement
Separations	See Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Congregations	109,403
Members	7.65 million
Official website	www.watchtower.org
Statistics from 2012 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses[1]

Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenialist restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity.^[2] The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7.65 million adherents involved in evangelism,^[3] convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual Memorial attendance of over 19.3 million.^[4][5] They are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, a group of elders in Brooklyn, New York, that establishes all doctrines.^[6][7][8] Jehovah's Witnesses' beliefs are based on their interpretations of the Bible^[9][10] and they prefer to use their own Bible translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.^[11][12] They believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and that the establishment of God's kingdom on earth is the only solution for all problems faced by humankind.^[13]

The group emerged from the Bible Student movement—founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell with the formation of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society—with significant organizational and doctrinal changes under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford.^[14][15] The name Jehovah's witnesses, based on Isaiah 43:10–12,^[16] was adopted in 1931 to clearly distinguish themselves from other Bible Student groups.^[17][18]

Jehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays, or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. Adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as "the truth" and consider themselves to be "in the truth".^[19] Jehovah's Witnesses consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.

Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion and shunning.^[20] Members who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated members may eventually be reinstated if they request it.

The religion's position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with some governments. Consequently, Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in various countries.

History

Background (1870–1916)

Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916).

In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed an independent group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to study the Bible.^[21][22] During the course of his ministry Russell disputed many of the creeds, doctrines, and traditions of mainstream Christianity including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world.^[23] In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with time prophecy. In the book they taught that God's dealings with mankind were divided dispensationally, each ending with a "harvest", that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874^[24] inaugurating the "harvest of the Gospel age", and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520-year period called "the Gentile Times".^[25] Beginning in 1878 they jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning. In June 1879 the two split over doctrinal differences and in July Russell began publishing the magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,^[26] stating that its purpose was to demonstrate the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under the invisible reign of Christ was imminent.^[27] As early as 1876, Russell taught that "the Gentile Times" would end in October 1914, at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth.^[28][29][30]

From 1879 Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations had been founded, and during 1879 and 1880 Russell visited each to teach the pattern of meetings he recommended.^[31] As congregations continued to form during Russell's ministry they each remained self-administrative, functioning under the congregationalist style of church governance.^[32][33] In 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley and in 1884 Charles Taze Russell incorporated the society as a non-profit business to distribute tracts and Bibles.^[34][35][36] By about 1900 Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs,^[37] and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization was maintaining nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers.^[38] Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry^[39][40][41] and had become the most distributed Christian author in America by 1912.^[41][42]

Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel.^[43] He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the International Bible Students Association.^[44] The approximately 50,000 members in 500 congregations worldwide ^[45] annually re-elected him as their pastor.^[46] Russell died October 31, 1916 at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.^[47]

Reorganization (1917–1942)

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and soon after members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner.^[48][49] The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade.^[50][51] In June 1917 he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series.^[52] The book, largely written by two Bible Students, was claimed to be the "posthumous work" of Russell.^{[53][54][55][56]} It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War.^[57] As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; charges against the directors were dropped in 1920.^[58]

Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919 he instituted the practice of appointing a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters.^[59] At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.^[60] Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford's twenty-five years as president, including the 1918 announcement reversing Russell's rejection of the belief that the Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year Kingdom.^[61][62][63] Disappointed by the changes, tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society,^[64][65] most of which still exist.^[66] By mid-1919 about one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society,^[67][68] and a majority by 1931.^{[69][70][71][72]}

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name—Jehovah's witnesses—based on Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah, and my servant whom I have chosen"—which was adopted by resolution.^[73] The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society.^[74][75][76] In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 introduced what he called a "theocratic" (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.^[59] Rutherford later claimed that this and other changes he had instituted fulfilled Bible prophecies in the book of Daniel.^[77][78][79]

From 1932 it was taught that a separate class of members would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. Previously, membership was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ.^[80] By 1933, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" were each moved to 1914.^{[62][81][82][83]}

As their interpretations of scripture developed, Witness publications taught that saluting national flags and singing the national anthem are forms of idolatry,^[84] which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany, and other countries.

Worldwide membership of Jehovah's Witnesses had reached 113,624 in 5,323 "companies" by the time of Rutherford's death in January 1942.^[85][86]

Continued development (1942–present)

Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world.^[87] By 1975 the number of active members had exceeded two million. Knorr's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct, and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce strict moral codes.^[88][89]

From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in late 1975^[90][91][92] or shortly thereafter.^{[93][94][95][96]} The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974, but membership declined after expectations for the year were proved wrong.^{[97][98][99][100]} Watch Tower Society literature did not state dogmatically that 1975 would definitely mark the end,^[101] but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding that year.^[102]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters^[103] (and later, also by branch committees).^[104] In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body.^[105] Reflecting these organizational changes, publications of Jehovah's Witnesses began using the capitalized name, Jehovah's Witnesses.^{[note 1]} Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by Don A. Adams, not a member of the Governing Body.

Organization

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership claims is an extension of a heavenly "theocratic government", reflecting their belief that it is God's "visible organization" on earth.^[106][107] The organization is headed by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since December 2010 has comprised seven members,^{[note 2]} all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn headquarters.^[108][109] There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body.^[110] The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses).^[111][112] It directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.^[107] It directly appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers,^[113] after they have been recommended by local branches,^[114] with traveling overseers supervising districts or circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Branch offices appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief.^[115]

Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases that are seen as breaching their doctrines. New elders are appointed by branch offices after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner to elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.^[107] Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division,^[116] though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege.^[117]

Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah’s Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization,"^[118] though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization."^{[119][note 3]} Watch Tower Society publications emphasize the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to "his organization",^{[120][121][note 4]} stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon.^{[122][123][124]} Witness publications state that acceptable service to God can be rendered only through that organization^[125] and that members should remain submissive to the religion's leaders and to local congregational elders.^[126][127] There is no tithing or collection; funding for all activities of the organization is provided by voluntary contributions, primarily from members.^[128][129]

Beliefs

Part of a series on
Christianity
Christians hold Jesus to be Christ
Jesus · Christ Virgin birth Crucifixion Resurrection Easter Jesus in Christianity
Bible / Foundations Old Testament New Testament Gospel Books Canon (Christian canons) Apocrypha Apostles Church Creeds Kingdom New Covenant
Theology Apologetics Baptism Christology Father Son Holy Spirit History of theology Salvation Trinity Ten Commandments
History and traditions Timeline Mary Peter Paul Fathers Early Constantine the Great Ecumenical councils Missions East–West Schism Crusades Protestant Reformation
General topics Art Criticism Ecumenism Liturgical year Liturgy Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism
Denominations Western Christianity Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinism Evangelicalism Holiness Independent Catholic Lutheran Methodist Old Catholic Protestant Pentecostal Roman Catholic Eastern Christianity Eastern Orthodox Eastern Catholic Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) Assyrian Nontrinitarianism Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Unitarian Christadelphian Oneness Pentecostal
Christianity portal
v t e

Sources of doctrine

Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture.^{[51][130][131]} Watch Tower Society publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose,^{[132][133][134][135]} and that such enlightenment results from the application of reason and study,^[136] the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels.^[137] The Society also teaches that "responsible representatives" of the "faithful and discreet slave class" at the religion's headquarters are helped by the holy spirit to discern "deep truths", which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before it makes doctrinal decisions.^[138] The religion's leadership, while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility,^[139] is said to provide "divine guidance"^[140] through its teachings described as "based on God's Word thus...not from men, but from Jehovah."^[141][142]

The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God.^[143] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable^[144] and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic.^[145] They consider the Bible to be the final authority for all their beliefs,^[146] although sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the religion concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible.^[147]Jehovah's Witnesses believe their religion is a restoration of first-century Christianity.^[148] The religion makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings^[149] and all Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements.^[150] Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended; Witnesses are strongly discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.^{[151][152][153]} Adherents are told to have "complete confidence" in the leadership, avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society's literature, and "not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding".^{[154][155][156][157]}

Jehovah and Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize use of God's biblical name, represented in the original texts by the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the name, Jehovah.^[158] They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a Trinity;^[159] consequently, the religion places more emphasis on God than on Christ.^[160][161] They believe that the holy spirit is God's power or "active force" rather than a person.^[162]

The Tetragrammaton

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created by means of Christ, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son".^[163] Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humankind.^[164] They believe Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross.^[165] They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word all refer to Jesus.^[166] Jesus is considered to be the only intercessor and high priest between God and humankind, and appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom.^[167] His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the 'anointed' class,^[168] though the 'other sheep' are said to also benefit from the arrangement.^[169]

Satan

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan caused Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.^[170] Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.

Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914,^[171] at which point the end times began. Witnesses believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order,^[170] that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They believe that individual rulers or governments are under Satan's direct control^{[172][173] [174]}

Life after death

Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave.^[175] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die.^[176] Watch Tower Society publications teach that humanity is in a sinful state,^[176] from which release is only possible by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement, for the sins of humankind.^[177]

Witnesses believe that a "little flock" go to heaven, but that the hope for life after death for the majority of "other sheep" involves being resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.^[178] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that only they meet scriptural requirements for surviving Armageddon, but that God is the final judge.^{[179][180][181]} During Christ's millennial reign, most people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever; they will be taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium.^[182][183]

God's kingdom

Witness publications teach that God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 Christians drawn from the earth.^[184] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death.^[185] It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth.^[186] They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914,^[187] and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth.^[188][189]

Eschatology

A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or "system of things", entered the "last days"^[190] in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably.^[191] They consider all other present-day religions to be false, identifying them with "Babylon the Great", or the "harlot", of Revelation 17,^[192] and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet-colored wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the "great tribulation".^[193] Satan will subsequently attack Jehovah's Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's "sheep", or true followers, will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include Earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden.^[194] After Armageddon, most of those who had died before God's intervention will gradually be resurrected during "judgment day" lasting for a thousand years. This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection, not on past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead perfect mankind. The end result will be a fully tested, glorified human race. Christ will then hand all authority back to God.^[195]

Watch Tower Society publications teach that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God's Kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in "woe" to mankind. They believe that Jesus rules invisibly, from heaven, perceived only as a series of "signs". They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Christ—as "presence". They believe Jesus' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as King in heaven in 1914, and ending when he comes to bring a final judgment against humans on Earth. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "second coming" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.^[196][197]

Practices

Worship

Worship at a Kingdom Hall.

Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.^[198] Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they refer to as "meetings" as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The format of the meetings is established by the religion's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide.^[198] Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising five distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering mid-week (three meetings) and on the weekend (two meetings). Prior to 2009, congregations met three times each week; these meetings were condensed, with the intention that members dedicate an evening for "family worship".^[199][200] Gatherings are opened and closed with kingdom songs (hymns) and brief prayers. Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for one-day, and two-day assemblies. Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death." This falls on the same date as the Jewish Passover, although the date often differs from the modern Passover for technical reasons.^[201][202]

Evangelism

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house.

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house.^[203][204] Free home Bible studies are offered to people who show interest in their beliefs, which they present with the aid of books, brochures and magazines, including The Watchtower. Some literature is available in 500 languages.^[205] Witnesses are told they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching.^[206][207] They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and are required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report".^[208][209] Baptized members who fail to submit a report every month are termed "irregular" and may be counseled by elders;^[210][211] those who do not submit a report for six consecutive months are termed "inactive".^[212]

Ethics and morality

Their views of morality reflect conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion if the individual is not deemed repentant;^[213][214] homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriages are forbidden. Abortion is considered murder.^[215] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.^[216] Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.^[215]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered.^[217][218] Marrying a non-believer, or endorsing such a union, is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions.^[219][220] Divorce is discouraged, and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery, termed "a scriptural divorce".^[221] If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the prior spouse has died or is since considered to have committed fornication.^[222] Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the religion terms "absolute endangerment of spirituality" are considered grounds for legal separation.^[223][224]

Disciplinary action

Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually involving offenses against the religion's code of personal morality^[225] or charges of apostasy for disputing the Watch Tower Society's doctrines^[226][227]—a judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, provide help and possibly administer discipline. Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline, administered to an offender deemed unrepentant.^[228] Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement;^[229][230] formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged.^[231] Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that "losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [the shunned individual] to come 'to his senses,' see the seriousness of his wrong, and take steps to return to Jehovah."^[232] The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior.^[233] Members who disassociate (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned.^{[234][235][236]} Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the congregation in which the disfellowshipping was enforced.^[237] Reproof is a lesser form of discipline given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of serious sin; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship.^[238] Marking, a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.^{[note 5]}

Separateness

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.^{[239][240][241]} They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed.^[242] Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Watch Tower Society publications define the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is ruled by Satan and a place of danger and moral contamination.^{[243][244][245]} Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a "danger" to their faith,^[246] and are also advised to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality.^{[247][248][249]}

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God's kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office, and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues.^[250][251] They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, nationalistic holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan's control over the world.^{[252][253][254]} Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.^[255]

They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services,^[256] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.^[257] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs.^[258] Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties.^[259][260] Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested the religion's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.^[261]

Rejection of blood transfusions

Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures.^{[262][263][264]} Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the religion.^[265][266] Watch Tower Society literature directs Witnesses to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation".^{[267][268][269]} Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions, and the Watch Tower Society provides information about current non-blood medical procedures.^[270]

Though Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions of whole blood, they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion.^{[271][272][273]} The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted Power of Attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept.^[274][275] Jehovah's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals.^[276][277]

Demographics

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, but do not form a large part of the population of any country.

As of August 2011, Jehovah's Witnesses report an average of 7.39 million publishers—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in 109,403 congregations.^[1] In 2011, these reports indicated over 1.7 billion hours spent in preaching and Bible study activity. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.65 million.^[278] Jehovah's Witnesses estimate their current worldwide growth rate to be 2.4% per year.^[1]

The official published membership statistics, such as those mentioned above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry; official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped individuals or others who might attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identified as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself.^[279][280] The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the religion: about 37% of people raised in the religion continued to identify themselves as Jehovah's Witnesses.^[281][282] Despite this, the National Council of Churches concluded that Jehovah's Witnesses "had the largest growth of any single denomination [in America]" with a 4.7% increase in 2009.^[283]

Sociological analysis

Sociologist James A. Beckford has classified the organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses as Totalizing, characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to co-operate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.^[284] Beckford identified the religion's chief characteristics as historicism (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), absolutism (conviction that the Watch Tower Society dispenses absolute truth), activism (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), rationalism (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and world indifference (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).^[285]

Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson, in his consideration of five religions including Jehovah's Witnesses, noted that each of the religions:^[286]

1. "exists in a state of tension with the wider society;"
2. "imposes tests of merit on would-be members;"
3. "exercises stern discipline, regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate, including the possibility of expulsion;"
4. "demands sustained and total commitment from its members, and the subordination, and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests."

Opposition

Controversy surrounding various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from local governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such an intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."^[287]

Persecution

Jehovah's Witness prisoners were identified by purple triangle badges in Nazi concentration camps.

Political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their doctrine of political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. In Germany, from 10,000 to 12,000 Witnesses were sent to concentration camps,^[288][289] and were identified by purple triangles; as many as 5000 died.^[290] More than 200 men were executed at the orders of German war courts.^[291] In Canada, Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps^[292] along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent.^[293] In the former Soviet Union, about 9300 Jehovah's Witness families were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North in April 1951.^[294] Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, including China, Vietnam and some Islamic states.^[295][296] Writers including Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, William Whalen, Alan Rogerson and William Schnell have claimed the religion often incited opposition to pursue a course of martyrdom in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society and also reassure members of the "truth" of the Watchtower cause as evidenced by the level of persecution from the outside world as they struggled to serve God.^[297]

Legal challenges

Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world. Their persistent legal challenges have broadened the definition of civil liberties in various countries.^[298] The cases generally relate to the right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.^[299]

Criticism

Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted criticism over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases, and what is claimed to be coercion of members. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.

Suppression of free speech and thought

Critics have described the religion's leadership as autocratic and totalitarian because of Watch Tower Society requirements for loyalty and obedience by Witnesses,^{[142][300][301]} intolerance of dissent about doctrines and practices,^[302] and the practice of expelling and shunning members who cannot conscientiously agree with all the religion's teachings.^{[6][227][303]} Sociologist Andrew Holden says those who choose to leave the religion "are seldom allowed a dignified exit. Not only is their disfellowshipping announced from the platform, they are also condemned as ‘mentally diseased’ or ‘apostates’."^[304] Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the religion as "totalitarian".^[305] Sociologist Rodney Stark states that while Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and members are expected to conform to "rather strict standards," enforcement tends to be informal, sustained by close bonds of friendship and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it."^[99]

The Watch Tower Society's publications strongly discourage followers from questioning its doctrines and counsel, reasoning that the Society is to be trusted as "God's organization".^{[302][306][307][308]} It warns members to "avoid independent thinking", claiming such thinking "was introduced by Satan the Devil"^[309][310] and would "cause division".^[311] Critics charge that by disparaging individual decision-making, the Watch Tower Society cultivates a system of unquestioning obedience^[151][312] in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives.^[313][314] Critics have accused the Watch Tower Society of exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses,^[315] controlling information^{[227][316][317]} and creating "mental isolation",^[318] which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.^[318] Holden, however, says the tabloid depiction of members as "brainwashed" is inaccurate, and that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice.^[319]

Watch Tower Society publications state that consensus of faith aids unity.^[320] They deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination.^[320] In a case involving Jehovah's Witnesses' activities in Russia, the European Court of Human Rights stated that the religion's requirements "are not fundamentally different from similar limitations that other religions impose on their followers' private lives" and that charges of "mind control" in the case were "based on conjecture and uncorroborated by fact."^[321]

New World Translation

Some Bible scholars including Bruce M. Metzger, former Professor and Bible editor at Princeton Theological Seminary, have claimed that the translation of certain texts in its New World Translation of the Bible is biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.^{[322][323][324][325][326]} English Bible editor Dr. Harold H. Rowley criticized the pre-release edition of the first volume (Genesis to Ruth) published in 1953 as "a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated."^[327] On the other hand, in his study on nine of "the Bibles most widely in use in the English-speaking world" Bible scholar Jason BeDuhn, Professor of Religious Studies from Northern Arizona University, claimed that the New World Translation was not bias free, but that he considered it to be "the most accurate of the translations compared," and "a remarkably good translation."^[328] Professor Benjamin Kedar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem described the translation as "an honest endeavor to achieve an understanding of the text that is as accurate as possible."^[329]

Metzger stated, "on the whole, one gains a tolerably good impression of the scholarly equipment of the translators", but goes on to criticize their insertion of the name Jehovah in the New Testament since it does not appear in the extant Greek manuscripts.^[330][331] Watch Tower Society publications have said the name was "restored" on a sound basis, particularly when New Testament writers used the Greek Kyrios (Lord) when quoting Old Testament scriptures that contained the Tetragrammaton.^[332] That view is endorsed by Bible scholar George Howard^[333] and R. B. Girdlestone, late principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford.^{[334][335][336]}

Failed predictions

Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will^[337][338] and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom.^{[339][340][341]} Raymond Franz, who became a critic of the religion, has cited publications that claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.^{[note 6]} Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.^[342][343] Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines.^[344][345] Critics highlight failed predictions that the Watch Tower Society had claimed were "beyond doubt" or "approved by God".^[346] The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet.^[347] It says that unlike Old Testament prophets, its interpretations of the Bible are not inspired or infallible,^{[348][349][350]} and that its predictions were not claimed as "the words of Jehovah."^[347] It states that some of its expectations have needed adjustment as a part of progressive revelation and of its eagerness for God's kingdom, adding that Witnesses are always ready to accept such adjustments and that it would be "foolish to take the view that expectations needing some adjustment should call into question the whole body of truth."^[351][352] George D. Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions.^[353]

Handling of sexual abuse cases

Critics have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members. Some victims of sexual abuse have asserted that they were ordered by certain local elders to maintain silence so as to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.^{[354][355][356][357]} Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have no policy of silence, and that elders are directed to report abuse to authorities when there is evidence of abuse, and when required to by law. In 1997, Jehovah's Witnesses' Office of Public Information published their policy^[358] for elders to report allegations of child abuse to the authorities where required by law to do so, even if there was only one witness.^[359][360] Any person known to have sexually abused a child is prohibited from holding any responsibility inside the organization.^[361] Unless considered by the congregation elders to demonstrate repentance, such a person is typically disfellowshipped.^[214]

Notes

1. ^ First occurrence: "Cruelties Go Unchecked in Malawi". Awake!: 3. 22 March 1976. 
2. ^ Twelve members as of September 2005 (See The Watchtower, March 15, 2006, page 26)
   Schroeder died March 8, 2006. (See The Watchtower, September 15, 2006, page 31)
   Sydlik died April 18, 2006. (See The Watchtower, January 1, 2007, page 8)
   Barber died April 8, 2007. (See The Watchtower, October 15, 2007, page 31)
   Jaracz died June 9, 2010. (See The Watchtower, November 15, 2010, page 23)
   Barr died December 4, 2010. (See The Watchtower, May 15, 2011, page 6)
3. ^ From 1956, baptism candidates were asked to acknowledge they were sinners needing salvation and confirm that they had dedicated themselves unreservedly to God and to do his will as revealed through Jesus Christ and the Bible. In the June 1, 1985 Watchtower, it was announced that the questions had changed, with candidates from that point asked to confirm they had repented of their sins and dedicated themselves to do Jehovah's will, and to acknowledge that their baptism identified themselves as one of Jehovah's Witnesses "in association with God's spirit-directed organization". Critic Raymond Franz (Crisis of Conscience, page 118) states that the change in the questions requires baptism candidates to declare their submission and obligation to an earthly organization, or human authority structure. He contends: "The Watch Tower Society's second baptismal question effectively replaces God's holy Spirit with the "spirit-directed organization".
4. ^ Raymond Franz (In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, p.449) claims the concept of loyalty and obedience to the organization is "stressed with mesmerizing frequency". Examples of such emphasis include the following: "Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View", The Watchtower, October 1, 1967, page 591, "Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect."; The Watchtower, September 1, 2006, pg 15, "Have we formed a loyal attachment to the organization that Jehovah is using today?"; "Your Reminders Are What I Am Fond Of", The Watchtower, June 15, 2006, pg 26, "We too should remain faithful to Jehovah and to his organization regardless of injustices we suffer and regardless of what others do."; "Are You Prepared for Survival?", The Watchtower, May 15, 2006, pg 22, "Just as Noah and his God-fearing family were preserved in the ark, survival of individuals today depends on their faith and their loyal association with the earthly part of Jehovah’s universal organization."; Worship The Only True God (Watch Tower Society, 2002), pg 134, "Jehovah is guiding us today by means of his visible organization under Christ. Our attitude toward this arrangement demonstrates how we feel about the issue of sovereignty ... By being loyal to Jehovah’s organization, we show that Jehovah is our God and that we are united in worship of him."
5. ^ A common example given is a baptized Witness who dates a non-Witness; see The Watchtower, July 15, 1999, p. 30.
6. ^ Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In Crisis of Conscience, 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them", (The Watchtower, April 1, 1972,) which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come" He also cites "Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger" (The Watchtower, May 1, 1997, page 8) which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, he quotes The Nations Shall Know That I Am Jehovah – How? (1971, pg 70, 292) which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites "Execution of the Great Harlot Nears", (The Watchtower, October 15, 1980, pg 17) which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end".

References

Further reading

• George D. Chryssides, Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses (2008)
• Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978-0-415-26610-9.
• Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organisational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses.
• Counting the Days to Armageddon by Robert Crompton (1996). A detailed examination of the development of Jehovah's Witnesses' eschatology. James Clarke & Co, Cambridge, ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
• Millions Now Living Will Never Die by Alan Rogerson. Detailed history of the Watch Tower movement, particularly its early years, a summary of Witness doctrines and the organizational and personal framework in which Witnesses conduct their lives. Constable & Co, London, 1969. SBN 094559406
• State and Salvation by William Kaplan (1989). Documents the Witnesses' fight for civil rights in Canada and the US amid political persecution during World War II. University of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-5842-6.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jehovah's Witnesses

Official websites

• Watchtower^® — Official website of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Worldwide Association of Jehovah’s Witnesses — Publication downloads in various digital formats
• Jehovah's Witnesses Official Media Website

Other sites

• 'Knocking' – A documentary about Jehovah's Witnesses. Sample Trailer
• Why Do Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Explanation – Theory documented by sociologists Rodney Stark & Laurence R. Iannaccone.
• Who are Jehovah's Witnesses, What are their beliefs^{[dead link]} Chapter from book, Religious Denominations In The United States by Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, (2005). Abingdon Press.