John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (26 May 1650 –
16 June 1722) (O.S)[1] was an
English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs throughout the
late 17th and early 18th centuries. His rise to prominence began as a lowly page in the royal court of Stuart England, but his natural courage on the field of battle soon ensured quick promotion and
recognition from his master and mentor James, Duke of York. When James became king
in 1685, Churchill played a major role in crushing the Duke of
Monmouth's rebellion; but just three years later, Churchill abandoned his Catholic king for the Protestant
William of Orange.
Honoured at William's coronation, Churchill, now the Earl of Marlborough, served with distinction in Ireland and Flanders during the War of the Grand Alliance. However, throughout the reign of William and Mary, their relationship with Marlborough and his influential wife Sarah, remained cool. After damaging allegations of collusion with the exiled
court of King James, Marlborough was dismissed from all civil and military offices and temporarily imprisoned in the
Tower of London. Only after the death of Mary, and the threat of another major European
war, did Marlborough return to favour with William.
Marlborough's influence at court reached its zenith with the accession of Sarah's close friend Queen Anne. Promoted to Captain-General of British
forces, and later to a dukedom, Marlborough found international fame in the War
of the Spanish Succession where, on the fields of Blenheim, Ramillies and Oudenarde, his place in history as one of
Europe's great generals was assured. However, when his wife fell from royal grace as Queen Anne's favourite, the Tories, determined on peace with France, pressed for his downfall. Marlborough was dismissed from all civil and
military offices on charges of embezzlement, but the Duke eventually regained favour with
the accession of George I in 1714. Although returned to his former offices,
the Duke's health soon deteriorated and, after a series of strokes, he eventually succumbed to
his illness in his bed at Windsor Lodge on 16 June
1722.
Early life (1650–78)
Ashe House
At the end of the English Civil War, Lady Eleanor Drake was joined at her
Devon home, Ashe House, by her third daughter Elizabeth, and Elizabeth's husband, Winston Churchill. Unlike his mother-in-law, who had supported the Parliamentary cause, Winston had had the misfortune of fighting on the losing side of the war for which he,
like so many other cavaliers, was forced to pay recompense; in his case £4,446.[2] This crippling fine had impoverished the ex-Royalist cavalry captain whose motto Fiel Pero
Desdichado (Faithful but Unfortunate) is still today used by his descendants.
Elizabeth gave birth to 12 children, only five of whom survived infancy. The eldest daughter, Arabella was born in February 1649; the eldest son, John, was born the following
year on 26 May, 1650 (O.S). Growing up in these impoverished
conditions, with family tensions soured by conflicting allegiances, may have had a lasting impression on the young Churchill. His
father's namesake, and John Churchill's biographer, Sir Winston Churchill, asserted –
"[The conditions at Ashe] might well have aroused in his mind two prevailing impressions: First a hatred of poverty … and
secondly, the need of hiding thoughts and feelings from those to whom their expression would be repugnant."[3]
After the Restoration of King Charles
II in 1660 his father's fortunes took a turn for the better, although he remained far from prosperous.[4] As a mark of Royal favour Winston had received rewards for losses incurred
fighting Parliament during the civil war, including the appointment as
Commissioner for Irish Land Claims in Dublin in 1662. While in
Ireland, John attended the Free School, but a year later his studies were
transferred to St Paul's School in London, after his father was recalled to take up the position of Junior Clerk Comptroller of the
King's Household at Whitehall. Charles' own
penury, however, meant the old cavaliers received scant financial reward, but what the prodigal king could offer – which would
cost him nothing – were positions at court for their progeny. So it was that in 1665, Winston Churchill's eldest daughter,
Arabella, became Maid of Honour to Anne
Hyde, the Duchess of York, joined some months later by her brother John, as page to her husband, James.[5][6]
Early military experience
James, Duke of York's passion for all things naval and military rubbed off on
young Churchill. Often accompanying the Duke inspecting the troops in the royal parks, it was not long before the boy had set his
heart on becoming a soldier himself. On 14 September 1667
(O.S), soon after his 17th birthday, he obtained a commission as ensign in the King's Own Company
in the 1st Guards, later to become the Grenadier Guards.[7] His career was further advanced when in 1668, Churchill sailed for the North
African outpost of Tangier, recently acquired as part of the dowry of Charles' Portuguese wife, Catherine of Braganza. In a rude
contrast to life at court, Churchill stayed here for three years, gaining first-class tactical training and field experience
skirmishing with the Moors.[5]
Back in London by February 1671, Churchill's handsome features and manner – described by Lord Chesterfield as "irresistible to either man or woman" – had soon
attracted the ravenous attentions of one of the King's most noteworthy mistresses, Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland.[8] But his liaisons with the insatiable temptress were indeed dangerous. One account
has it that upon His Majesty's appearance, Churchill leapt out of his lover's bed and hid in the cupboard, but the King, himself
wily in such matters, soon discovered young Churchill who promptly fell to his knees – "You are a rascal," said the King, "but I
forgive you because you do it to get your bread."[9]
A year later Churchill went to sea again. Whilst fighting the Dutch navy at the
Battle of Solebay off the Suffolk coast in June 1672,
valorous conduct aboard the Duke of York's flagship, the Royal Prince, earned Churchill
promotion (above the resentful heads of more senior officers) to a captaincy in the Lord High Admiral's
Regiment.[11] The following year Churchill gained a
further commendation at the Siege of Maastricht when the young captain distinguished
himself as part of the 30-man forlorn hope, successfully capturing and defending part of
the fortress. During this incident Churchill is credited with saving the Duke
of Monmouth's life, receiving a slight wound in the process but gaining further praise from a grateful House of Stuart, as
well as recognition from the House of Bourbon. King Louis XIV in person commended the deed, from which time forward bore Churchill an enviable
reputation for physical courage, as well as earning the high regard of the common soldier.[12]
Although King Charles' anti-French Parliament had forced England to withdraw from the Franco-Dutch War in 1674, some English regiments remained in French service. In April Churchill was
appointed the colonelcy of one such regiment, thereafter serving with, and learning from, the great Marshal Turenne. Churchill was present at the hard-fought battles of
Sinzheim and Entzheim, for which he earned further praise – he
may also have been present at Sasbach in June 1675, where Turenne was killed.[13] On his return to St James'
Palace, Churchill's attention was drawn towards other matters, and to a fresh face at court.
Marriage
"I beg you will let me see you as often as you can," pleaded Churchill in a letter to Sarah Jennings, "which I am sure you ought to do if you care for my love …
"[15] Sarah Jennings' social origins were
in many ways similar to Churchill's – minor gentry blighted by debt-induced poverty. After her father died when she was eight,
Sarah, together with her mother and sisters, moved to London – a city still recovering from the Great Fire of two years previous. As Royalist supporters, the Jennings' loyalty to the crown, like
the Churchill's, was repaid with court employment – by 1673, Sarah had become a Maid of Honour to the Duchess of York,
Mary of Modena, second wife to James, Duke of York.[16]
Sarah was about fifteen when Churchill returned from the Continent in 1675, and he appears to have been almost immediately
captivated by her charms and not inconsiderable good looks.[15] But Churchill's amorous, almost abject, missives of devotion were, it seems, received with
suspicion and accusations of incredulity – his first lover, Barbara Villiers, was just moving her household to Paris, feeding doubts that he may well have been looking at Sarah as a replacement mistress rather
than a fiancée.[17] "You say I pretend passion for you,"
protested Churchill … "I cannot imagine what you mean by it."[18] However, his persistent courtship over the coming months eventually won over the beautiful, if
relatively poor, Maid of Honour. Although Sir Winston wished his son to marry the wealthy Catherine Sedley (if only to ease his own burden of debt), Colonel Churchill
married Sarah sometime in the winter of 1677–78, possibly in the apartments of the Duchess of York.[19]
Churchill (now Master of the Robes), together with Sarah, shared life between his
parent's home in Dorset (much to his wife's chagrin) and, when in London, his bachelor lodgings
in Jermyn Street.
Years of crises (1678–1700)
Diplomatic and military service
It was not long before Churchill was awarded his first important diplomatic mission to the Continent. Accompanied by his
friend and rising politician, Sidney Godolphin, Churchill was
assigned to negotiate a treaty in The Hague with the Dutch and Spanish in preparation for war
– this time against France.[20] The young diplomat's
essay in international statecraft proved personally successful, bringing him into contact with William, Prince of Orange, who was highly impressed by the shrewdness and courtesy of Churchill's
negotiating skills.[21] The assignment
had helped Churchill develop a breadth of experience that other mere soldiers were never to achieve,[21] but because of the duplicitous dealings of Charles's secret
negotiations with King Louis (Charles had no intention of waging war against France), the mission ultimately proved
abortive.[22]
On his return to England, Churchill was appointed temporary rank of Brigadier-General of Foot, but hopes of promised action on the Continent proved illusory as the
warring factions sued for peace and signed the Treaty of Nijmegen.[22] However, in the coming years, troubles
nearer to home would further test Churchill's statesmanship, generalship and most controversially, his loyalty.
For six months (February–July) of 1679, Churchill was one of the two elected members of parliament for Newton in the Isle of Wight.[23][24]
The iniquities of the Popish Plot (a fabrication aimed at excluding the Catholic Duke of York from the English accession), resulted in temporary banishment for
James and Churchill was obliged to attend his master. This exile would last nearly three years: The Duke of York was permitted to
move to Scotland in due course but it was not until 1682, after Charles' complete victory over
the exclusionists, that he was allowed to return to London and Churchill's career could again prosper.[25]
He was made Lord Churchill of Eyemouth in the peerage
of Scotland in December 1682, and appointed colonel of the King's Own Royal
Regiment of Dragoons the following year. The Churchills now combined income ensured a life of some style and comfort; as
well as maintaining their residence in London (staffed with seven servants), they were also able to purchase Holywell House in
St Albans where their growing family could enjoy the benefits of country life.[26]
The Churchills were, however, soon drawn back to court. When the 18-year-old Princess
Anne married Prince George of Denmark, Churchill as a trusted envoy was
assigned to bring Prince George back to England. Princess Anne offered Sarah – of whom she had been passionately fond since
childhood – an appointment to her household. Their relationship continued to blossom, so much so that years later Sarah wrote –
"To see [me] was a constant joy; and to part with [me] for never so short a time, a constant uneasiness … This worked even to the
jealousy of a lover."[27] For his part, Churchill treated
the princess with respectful affection and grew genuinely attached to her, assuming – in his reverence to royalty – the
chivalrous role of a knightly champion.[28]
Under King James II
With the death of King Charles in 1685, his brother, James, Duke of York became King. The late King's bastard son,
James, Duke of Monmouth, urged on by malcontents and various
Whig conspirators (exiled for their part in the failed Rye House plot), prepared to take what he considered rightfully his – the crown of England.
Although appointed Gentleman of the King's Bedchamber in April, and the
following month admitted to the English peerage as Baron Churchill of Sandridge, Churchill was offended by the appointment of
second in command to face Monmouth; the honour of leading the King’s forces instead passed to the limited, but highly loyal,
Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham. Unaware that he had just
been promoted to Major-General on 3 July (O.S), Churchill
complained to Lord Clarendon, "I see plainly that the trouble is
mine, and that the honour will be another's."[29]
Monmouth's ill-timed, ill-equipped and ill-advised peasant rebellion eventually
floundered on the West Country field of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 (O.S), but
although his role was subordinate to Feversham, Churchill's administrative organisation, tactical skill and courage in battle in
his first independent command was pivotal in the victory – the man who saved Monmouth's life at Maastricht had now brought about
his demise at Sedgemoor.
As prophesised, Feversham received the lion's share of the reward. Churchill was not entirely forgotten – in August he was
awarded the lucrative colonelcy of the Third Troop of Life Guards – but the witch-hunt that
followed the rebellion, driven by the bloodthirsty zeal of Judge
Jeffreys, sickened his sense of propriety.[30]
Indeed, it may be possible that the Sedgemoor campaign, and its subsequent persecutions, set in train a process of disillusion
that culminated in his abandonment of his king, and long-time patron and friend, just three short years later.[31]
John Churchill in his thirties, attributed to John Riley. The Star of the
Order of the
Garter was added after 1707.
Churchill remained at court, but was anxious not to be seen as sympathetic towards the King's growing religious
ardour.[32] James' promotion of Catholics in royal
institutions – including the army – engendered first suspicion, and ultimately sedition in his
mainly Protestant subjects. Some in the King's service, such as the Earl of Salisbury and the
Earl of Melfort adopted Catholicism in order to gain favour at court,
but Churchill stated: "I have been bred a Protestant, and intend to live and die in that communion."[33] Had he abandoned his faith he would also have alienated Princess Anne.
Although the invitation by various Whigs and
Tories parliamentarians for William, Prince of Orange to invade England was not signed by
Churchill, he declared his intention through William's principal English contact in The Hague – "If you think there is anything
else that I ought to do, you have but to command me."[34]
Churchill, like many others, was looking for an opportune time to desert James.
William landed at Torbay on 5 November 1688 (O.S). From there, he moved his forces to Exeter. James' forces – once again
commanded by Lord Feversham – moved to Salisbury, but few of its officers were
eager to fight – even James' daughter Princess Anne wrote to William to wish him "good success in this so just an
undertaking."[35]
Churchill, promoted to Lieutenant-General, was still at his
king's side but his showing "the greatest transports of joy imaginable" at the desertion of Lord Cornbury, led to entreaties from Feversham for his arrest. Churchill himself had
openly encouraged defection to the Orangist cause, but James continued to prevaricate.[36] Soon it was too late to act. After the meeting of the council of war on the
morning of 23 November (O.S), Churchill, accompanied by some 400 officers and men, slipped
from the royal camp and rode towards William in Axminster. Before his desertion, Churchill
left behind him a letter of apology and self-justification: "I am activated by a higher principle … I will always with hazard of
my life and fortune (so much as Your Majesty's due) endeavour to preserve your royal person and lawful rights, with all the
tender concerns and dutiful respect that becomes, sir, Your Majesty's most dutiful and most obliged subject and servant,
Churchill." Churchill, who was a staunch Anglican, found that the cause of religion was
worth treason.[37]
James, who in the words of one French contemporary, had "given up three kingdoms for a Mass", fled to France, taking with him his
heir, James, Prince of Wales (later known as "The Old Pretender"). With
barely a shot fired, William had secured the throne, reigning as joint sovereign with James' eldest daughter, Mary.
War of the Grand Alliance
In April 1689, as part of William's coronation honours, Churchill was created Earl of Marlborough. His elevation in the
peerage led to accusatory rumours from James' supporters that Marlborough had disgracefully betrayed his erstwhile King for
personal gain; William himself entertained reservations about the man who had deserted James.[38] Marlborough's apologists though (including his most notable descendant Winston
Churchill) have been at pains to attribute patriotic, religious and moral motives to his action, but, in the words of historian
David Chandler, it must be plainly asserted that Marlborough was also motivated by ambition and self-interest – it is difficult
to absolve Marlborough of ruthlessness, ingratitude, intrigue and treachery against a man to whom he owed virtually everything in
his life and career to date.[39]
Less than six months after James' departure for the Continent, England declared war on France as part of a powerful coalition
aimed at curtailing the ambitions of King Louis XIV; but although the War of the
Grand Alliance lasted nine years (1688–97), Marlborough saw only three years' service in the field, and then mostly in
subordinate commands. However, at Walcourt on 25
August 1689 Marlborough won praise from the Dutch commander, Prince Waldeck, – " … despite his youth he displayed greater military capacity than do
most generals after a long series of wars … He is assuredly one of the most gallant men I know."[40]
When he returned to England, Marlborough was presented with further opportunities. As commander-in-chief of the forces in
England he became highly knowledgeable of all the intricacies and illogicalities of the English military system, and played a
major role in its reorganisation and recruitment; but since Walcourt, Marlborough's popularity at court had waned.[41] William and Mary distrusted both Lord and
Lady Marlborough's influence as confidents and supporters of the Princess; so much so that a resentful Mary asked her sister to
choose between herself and the King on the one hand, and the Marlboroughs on the other – unhesitantly, Anne chose the
latter.[42] For the moment though, the clash of tempers
were over-shadowed by more pressing events in Ireland, where James had landed
in March 1689 in his attempt to regain his throne. When William left for Ireland in June 1690, Marlborough was appointed a member
of the Council of Nine to advise Queen Mary in the King's absence, but she made scant effort to disguise her distaste at his
appointment – "I can neither trust or esteem him," she wrote to William.[41]
William's decisive victory at the Boyne on 1 July
1690 (O.S) had forced James to abandon his army and flee back to France. After obtaining permission
from William, Marlborough himself left for Ireland, capturing the ports of Cork and
Kinsale in October, but he was to be disappointed in his hopes of an independent command.
Although William recognised Marlborough's qualities as a soldier, he was still not disposed to fully trust anyone who had
defected from King James, and loath to advance a career of a man whom he described to Lord Halifax as 'very assuming'.[43]
Dismissal and disgrace
The refusal of a dukedom and the Order of the Garter, as well as failing to be
appointed Master-General of the Ordnance, rankled with the ambitious
earl; nor had Marlborough concealed his bitter disappointment behind his usual bland discretion.[44] Using his influence in Parliament and the army, Marlborough aroused
dissatisfaction concerning William's preferences for foreign commanders, an exercise designed to force the King's hand.[45] William, aware of this, in turn began to speak openly of his
distrust of Marlborough; the Elector of Brandenburg's envoy to London overheard
the King remark that he had been treated – "so infamously by Marlborough that, had he not been king, he would have felt it
necessary to challenge him to a duel."[46]
Since January 1691, Marlborough had been in contact with James at Saint-Germain. The Earl was anxious to obtain the exiled King's pardon for deserting him in 1688 – a pardon essential for the success of his future career in the not altogether
unlikely event of James' restoration.[47] William was
well aware of these contacts (as well as others such as Godolphin and Shrewsbury), but their double-dealing was seen more in the
nature of an insurance policy, rather than as an explicit commitment – a necessary element in a situation of unexampled
complexity.[48] However, by the time William and
Marlborough had returned from an uneventful campaign in the Spanish Netherlands in
October 1691, their relationship had further deteriorated.
On 20 January 1692 (O.S), the Earl of Nottingham, Secretary of State,
ordered Marlborough to dispose of all his posts and offices, both civil and military, and consider himself dismissed from the
army and banned from court.[49] No reasons were given but
Marlborough's chief associates were outraged; the Duke of
Shrewsbury voiced his disapproval and Godolphin threatened to retire from government; Admiral Russell, now commander-in-chief of the Navy personally accused the King of
ingratitude to the man who had "set the crown upon his head."[50]
High treason
The nadir of Marlborough's fortunes had not yet been reached. The spring of 1692 brought renewed threats of a French invasion
and new accusations of Jacobite treachery. Acting on the testimony of Robert Young, the Queen
had arrested all the signatories to a letter purporting the restoration of James II and the seizure of King William. Marlborough,
as one of these signatories was sent to the Tower of London on 14 May where he languished for five weeks; his anguish compounded by the news of the death of his younger son
Charles. Young's letters were eventually discredited as forgeries and Marlborough released, but he continued his correspondence
with James, leading to the celebrated incident of the "Camaret Bay letter" of 1694.[51]
For several months the Allies had been planning an attack against Brest, the French
port in the Bay of Biscay. The French had received intelligence alerting them to the
imminent assault, enabling Marshal Vauban to strengthen its defences and reinforce the garrison.
Inevitably, the attack on 18 June, led by the English General Thomas Tollemache, ended in disaster; most of his men were killed or captured – Tollemache himself
died of his wounds shortly afterwards.[52]
Despite lacking evidence, Marlborough's detractors claimed that it was he who had alerted the enemy.[51][53] But although it is practically certain that Marlborough sent a message across
the channel in early May describing the impending attack on Brest, it is equally certain
that the French had long learned of the expedition from another source – possibly Godolphin or the Earl of Danby.[51] Sir Winston Churchill goes as far to say that the letter was a forgery, however David
Chandler states – "the whole episode is so obscure and inconclusive that it is still not possible to make a definite ruling. In
sum, perhaps we should award Marlborough the benefit of the doubt."[54]
Queen Mary II. Mary died childless in 1695, leaving her sister Anne as