Western Philosophers
17th-century philosophy
(Modern Philosophy) |
John Locke
|
|
Name
|
|
|
Birth
|
August 29, 1632
Wrington, Somerset, England
|
|
Death
|
October 28 1704 (aged 72)
Essex, England
|
|
School/tradition
|
British Empiricism, Social contract,
Natural law
|
|
Main interests
|
Metaphysics, Epistemology, Political philosophy, philosophy of mind,
Education
|
|
Notable ideas
|
tabula rasa, "government with the consent of the governed"; state of nature; rights of life, liberty and property
|
|
Influences
|
Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Grotius, Samuel
Rutherford, Descartes, Hooker,
Hobbes, Polish Brethren
|
|
Influenced
|
Hume, Kant, Berkeley, Paine and many political philosophers after him,
especially the American Founding Fathers, Arthur Schopenhauer
|
|
Signature
|
|
John Locke, (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was an English
philosopher. Locke is considered the first of the British Empiricists, but is equally important to social contract theory. His
ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers and contributors to liberal
theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau,
many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American Declaration of
Independence.
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin for modern conceptions of identity and "the self", figuring prominently in
the later works of philosophers such as David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the
first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of "consciousness." He also postulated that the mind was a "blank
slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, contrary to Cartesian or Christian philosophy, Locke
maintained that people are born without innate ideas.
Life
Locke's father, who was also named John Locke, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna,[1] who had served as a
captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the
English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene, was a tanner's daughter and reputed to be
very beautiful. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on August
29, 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day. Soon after Locke's
birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford,
about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house
in Belluton.
In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster
School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and former
commander of the younger Locke's father. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by
the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at
the university. Through his friend Richard Lower whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and
the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the English Royal
Society, of which he eventually became a member.
Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a
master's degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor
of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively
during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert
Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had
come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and
persuaded him to become part of his retinue.
Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in
London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his
medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on
Locke's natural philosophical thinking — an effect that would become evident in the An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became
life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to
undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with
saving his life.
It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the
Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from
this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to
the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics.
Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's
political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord
Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France. He returned to England in
1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most
likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises
of Government. Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious
Revolution of 1688, but also to counter the absolutist political philosophy of Sir Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes. Though
Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite
revolutionary for that period in English history.
However, Locke fled to the Netherlands, Holland, in 1683,
under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, which was a plot against
King James II (though there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme). In the Netherlands Locke
had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration.
Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied
William of Orange's wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Locke's publishing
took place after his arrival back in England — his aforementioned Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the Two
Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning
Toleration all appearing in quick succession upon his return from exile.
Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was
marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the
Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton.
He died in October 28, 1704 after a prolonged decline in health, and is buried in the churchyard
of the village of High Laver,[2] east of Harlow in Essex, where he had
lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke
never married nor had children.
Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the
Great Plague of London and the Great Fire
of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland
were held by the same monarch throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy
and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time.
Influence
Locke exercised a profound influence on philosophy and politics, in particular on liberalism. Modern libertarians also claim him as an influence. He
was a strong influence on Voltaire, while his arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the
written works of Alexander Hamilton, James
Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In
addition, Locke's views influenced the American and French Revolutions. But Locke's influence may have been even more profound in
the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold
Seigel argue that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks the beginning of the modern conception of the
self.[3]
Constitution of Carolina
Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also
to appraisals of the United States. Detractors note that he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal
Africa Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the Fundamental Constitution of the Carolinas while Shaftesbury's secretary, which
established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having justified the displacement of the
Native Americans. Because of his opposition to aristocracy and
slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy, or of caring only for the liberty of English capitalists. Most American liberal scholars reject these
criticisms, however, questioning the extent of his impact upon the Fundamental Constitution and his detractors'
interpretations of his work in general.
Theory of value and property
Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and
aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from
labour.
Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labour. In addition, property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the
subjects arbitrarily." Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his social
theory.
Political theory
Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human
nature is characterized by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish.
This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and none had a
right to harm another’s “life, health, liberty, or possessions.” Locke never refers to Hobbes by name, however, and may instead
have been responding to other writers of the day.[4] Locke
also advocated governmental checks and balances and believed that revolution is not
only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Constitution of the United States and its Declaration of Independence.
Limits to accumulation
Labour creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s capacity to
consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offense against nature. However, with the introduction of “durable”
goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus not offend the natural law.
The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property
without causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be “hoarded up without injury
to anyone,” since they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of
accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract
establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation
but does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited
accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles that government should
apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labour theory of
value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the
demand-and-supply theory developed in the Considerations. Moreover, Locke anchors property in
labour but in the end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth.
Locke on price theory
Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was
set out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691, titled Some
Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money.[5] Supply is quantity and demand is rent. “The
price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers.” and “that which regulates the
price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.” The quantity theory of money forms a special
case of this general theory. His idea is based on “money answers all things” (Ecclesiastes) or “rent of money is always
sufficient, or more than enough,” and “varies very little…” Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant,
Locke concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates the
determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed
and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of
capitalization, such as land, which has value because “by its constant production of
saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income.” Demand for money is almost the same as demand for goods or land; it
depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For medium of exchange “money is capable by
exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life.” For loanable funds, “it comes to
be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income … or interest.”
Monetary thoughts
Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a "counter" to measure value, and as a "pledge"
to lay claim to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to
paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal
value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the
government which issues it.
Locke argues that a country should seek a favorable balance of trade, lest it fall
behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly
seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also
movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less significant and less
volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative
to that of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.
He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders,
labourers and brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the
brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and
landholders, had a negative influence on both one's personal and the public economy that they supposedly contributed to.
The Self
Locke defines the self as “that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material,
simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and
so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends,”[6] but Locke does not ignore the “substance.” He writes “the body too goes to the making the
man."[7] The Lockean self is therefore a self-aware,
self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body. In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this
conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position which holds that
man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an “empty” mind—a tabula rasa—that is shaped by experience;
sensations and reflections being the two
sources of all our ideas.[8] Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning
Education is an outline for how to educate this mind; he expresses his belief that education makes the man, or more
fundamentally, that the mind is an “empty cabinet” with the statement, “I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine
parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."[9]
Locke also suggested that “the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and
lasting consequences."[10] He argued that the “associations
of ideas” that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self—they are
what first mark the tabula rasa. In the Essay, in which he introduces both of these concepts, Locke warns against,
for example, letting “a foolish maid” convince a child that “goblins and sprites” are associated with the night for “darkness
shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the
other."[11] "Associationism," as this theory would come
to be called, exerted a very powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory. Nearly every
educational writer would warn parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the
development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's
attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man (1749).
List of major works
Major unpublis
