Biography:

Kanishka

Kushan ruler Kanishka (flourished c. 78-c. 103 A.D.) controlled an empire covering most of India, Iran, and central Asia in the first and second centuries. With his conversion to and official support of Mahayana Buddhism, the religion underwent a period of substantial growth, gaining converts throughout the Kushan realm, including parts of China. This growth was attended by a blossoming of Buddhist iconography, sculpture, and architecture.

Kanishka was the greatest ruler of the Kushan Empire, a realm that covered much of present-day India, Pakistan, Iran and other parts of central Asia and China during the first and second centuries. Under his influence, the developing religious philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism was spread to areas of central Asia and China and gained a prominent following in the areas under his control. A supporter of the arts who embraced ideas from the many peoples of his region, Kanishka also helped bring about a new era of sculpture that combined Buddhist themes with representational approaches adopted from other cultures, particularly the Roman Empire.

Almost no biographical information on Kanishka exists; what is known is primarily drawn from legends and archaeological artifacts originating during his rule. Modern scholars debate even the exact dates of his reign. For many years Kanishka was generally accepted to have flourished during the years 78 A.D. to 103 A.D., but some more recent arguments have placed him between 128 A.D. and 151 A.D. The Kushan empire was already a powerful force when he became its leader. The Kushan people had originated from a central Asian region that was the site of extensive migrations of numerous ethnic groups. Around 130 B.C., the Kushans were one of about five central Asian nomadic tribes that conquered the region of Bactria, which is now part of northern Afghanistan. Here the Kushans absorbed the Greek and Indian cultural influences that had developed in Bactria. The tribe eventually became the most powerful group in the area, and under the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises I, the various tribes were unified. Eventually, the Kushans moved east, adopting the Hindu Kush region of northwestern India as their home. Beginning with the rule of Kujula Kadphises, and continuing through the reign of his son, Wima Kadphises II, and then Kanishka, the Kushans gained control of a large part of India. This was a notable feat, as the area was historically unstable due to the feuding of a number of states.

Controlled Vast Empire

It has been suggested that Kanishka may not have been of the same lineage as the Kadphises rulers. Various theories propose that he may have been a successful invader from a northern region, such as Khotan in Sinkiang, or that he may have been a leader of an Indian state who emerged victorious from a power struggle after the demise of the Kadphises line. Once he assumed power, Kanishka instituted a system of co-rule, sharing his authority with a man named Vashishka, who was probably his son or brother. Control of his huge empire was maintained by instituting a number of local governments headed by provincial governors (satraps), district officers (meridareks), and military governors (strategoi) appointed by Kanishka. Like many royal rulers, Kanishka claimed a divine heritage. This is reflected in the many titles he adopted from a number of cultures, including King of Kings," Great King," "Son of Heaven," and "Emperor." It is also evident in the Kushan practice of deifying emperors and dedicating temples to them after their death.

Under Kanishka, the Kushan empire reached its greatest heights. The center of the region was the upper Indus and Ganges river valleys in what is now Iran and India; its capital was the city of Purushapura, now the city of Peshawar in Pakistan. Kushan holdings in central Asia gave them control of a number of major trade routes and ports, and traders were charged significant fees to transport goods through these routes. The kingdom's economy thrived on the money brought in by foreign trade, creating a prosperous urban society filled with merchants and guilds. The Kushans were also enriched by the new ideas and artistic influences that they gained from their interactions with other cultures ranging as far as the Roman Empire in the west to China in the east.

Supported Growth of Mahayana Buddhism

Kanishka himself seems to have embodied the strong, yet tolerant and diverse Kushan culture. As depicted in sculpture and on coins of the period, he presented a forceful image; one statue of him in Mathura portrays him in the costume of a warrior. But he also took an eclectic interest in religion and the arts, as can be seen by the variety of deities that appear on his coins. Eventually, like many other Kushan people, Kanishka came to favor Buddhism, probably due to the fact that in the caste system of Hinduism, the Kushans would have held a rather low position. The Mahayana form of Buddhism was just developing at this time, and by his official support of the religion it enjoyed a rich period of growth. By providing resources for Buddhist practitioners to educate others in the faith, particularly through the spread of religious iconography, Mahayana Buddhism spread throughout central Asia and into China. Acting under Kanishka's authority, the Sarvastivadin monks, supporters of the new Mahayana Buddhism, held a religious council in which a series of Buddhist canonical writings was drafted. This work also helped to establish the fledgling denomination.

Kanishka's religious policies, combined with artistic influences arriving from the western Greco-Roman and Iranian cultures resulted in the development of a new trend in sculpture that represented Buddhist themes in a more naturalistic, popular style. The emperor was also responsible for some impressive architectural accomplishments. In Peshawar he oversaw the construction of a 638-foot tall Buddhist shrine. The building, which was known across Asia for its magnificence, was composed of a five-stage base, a second section comprised of a 13-story structure of carved wood, and the crowning detail of an iron column decorated with umbrellas of gilded copper. Kanishka is reputed to have been an enthusiastic patron of scholarship and the arts who brought scientists and writers to his court.

There is no available information about the death of Kanishka. A relic casket bearing an inscription of Kanishka, however, was found early in the twentieth century and now resides at the museum in Peshawar. Despite the dearth of concrete information, the effects of Kanishka's rule are evident in the cultural and religious history of India, China, and central Asia. The spread of Mahayana Buddhism that was made possible by his support provided a strong base for the religion. In addition, this development also affected the retention of Hinduism by many Indian people, who considered Kanishka and his religion to be a foreign presence. Research will probably never reveal a complete picture of Kanishka's life, but the numerous artistic and architectural artifacts surviving from his reign testify to his recognition of the value of the ideas and traditions of a multitude of cultures.

Kanishka I
Kushan king

Gold coin of Kanishka I (late issue, c.150 AD). Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Bactrian legend in Greek script (with the addition of the Kushan Ϸ "sh" letter): ϷΑΟΝΑΝΟϷΑΟ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΙ ΚΟϷΑΝΟ ("Shaonanoshao Kanishki Koshano"): "King of Kings, Kanishka the Kushan".
Reign	Kushan: 127 AD - 151 AD
Coronation	c. AD 127
Full name	Kanishka (I)
Titles	King of Kings, the Great Saviour, the Son of God, the Shah, the Kushan
Predecessor	Vima Kadphises
Successor	Huvishka

A great Kushan king

Kanishka was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity. He probably spoke an Indo-European language related to Tocharian, and he used the Greek script in his inscriptions.

Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as demonstrated by an impressive geneaology of the Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription.^[1] ^[2]

A number of legends about Kanishka were preserved in Buddhist religious traditions. Along with the Indian kings Ashoka and Harshavardhana, and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), he is considered by Buddhists to have been one of the greatest Buddhist kings.

Kanishka's era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 CE on the basis of Harry Falk's ground-breaking research.^[3] ^[4] Kanishka's era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.

Conquests in India and Central Asia

Kanishka's empire was certainly vast. It extended from southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, north of the Amu Darya (Oxus) in the north west to Northern India, as far as Mathura in the south east (the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra and Sri Champa), and his territory also included Kashmir where there was a town Kanishkapur, named after him not far from the Baramula Pass and which still contains the base of a large stupa.

Copper coin of the Tarim Basin, area of Khotan, 1st-2nd century CE.
Obv:: Chinese characters: LUH (六) TCHU TSIEN "Six tchu (of) money"
Rev:: Depiction of a horse. Prakrit legend in Kharoshthi script: GUGRAMAYA.

Knowledge of his hold over Central Asia is less well established. Chinese records indicate that general Ban Chao fought battles with a Kushan army of 70,000 men led by an otherwise unknown Kushan Viceroy named Xie (Chinese: 謝) near Khotan in 90 CE. Though Ban Chao claimed to be victorious, forcing the Kushans to retreat by use of a scorched-earth policy the region fell to Kushan forces in the early 2nd century.^[5] As a result, for a period (until the Chinese regained control c. 127 CE) ^[6] the territory of the Kushans extended to Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand, which were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Several coins of Kanishka have been found in the Tarim Basin.

Controlling both the land and sea trade routes between South Asia and Rome seems to have been one of Kanishka's chief imperial goals.

Kanishka's coinage

Gold coin of Kanishka I with the Hellenistic divinity Helios. (c. 120 AD).
Obverse: Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding a standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Greek legend ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗšΚΟΥ "[coin] of Kanishka, king of kings".
Reverse: Standing Helios in Hellenistic style, forming a benediction gesture with the right hand. Legend in Greek script: ΗΛΙΟΣ Helios. Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the left.

Kanishka's coins portray images of Indian, Greek, Iranian and even Sumero-Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religious syncretism in his beliefs. Kanishka's coins from the beginning of his reign were written in Greek language and script and depict Greek divinities. Later coins are in the Bactrian language (the Iranian language that the Kushans evidently spoke), and Greek divinities were replaced by corresponding Iranic ones. All of Kanishka's coins - even ones with a legend in the Bactrian language - were written in a modified Greek script that had one additional glyph (Ϸ) to represent /š/ (sh), as in the word 'Kushan' and 'Kanishka'.

On his coins, the king is typically depicted as a bearded man in a long coat and trousers, with flames emanating from his shoulders. He wears large rounded boots, and is armed with a long sword similar to a scimitar as well as a lance. He is frequently seen to be making a sacrifice on a small altar.

Hellenistic phase

A few coins at the beginning of his reign have a legend in the Greek language and Greek script: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗšΚΟΥ, basileus basileon kaneshkou "[coin] of Kanishka, king of kings."

Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on these early coins:

ΗΛΙΟΣ (elios Helios), ΗΦΑΗΣΤΟΣ (ephaestos Hephaistos), ΣΑΛΗΝΗ (salene Selene), ΑΝΗΜΟΣ (anemos Anemos)

Iranic/Indic phase

Kushan Carnelian seal representing the Iranian divinity Adsho (ΑΘϷΟ legend in Greek letters), with triratana symbol left, and Kanishka's dynastic mark right. The divinity uses stirrups.

Following the transition to the Bactrian language on coins, Iranic and Indic divinities replace the Greek ones:

ΑΡΔΟΧšΟ (ardoxsho, Ashi Vanghuhi)
ΛΡΟΟΑΣΠΟ (lrooaspo, Drvaspa)
ΑΘšΟ (athsho, Atar)
ΦΑΡΡΟ (pharro, personified khwarenah)
ΜΑΟ (mao, Mah)
ΜΙΘΡΟ, ΜΙΙΡΟ, ΜΙΟΡΟ, ΜΙΥΡΟ (mithro, miiro, mioro, miuro, variants of Mithra)
ΜΟΖΔΟΟΑΝΟ (mozdaooano, "Mazda the victorious?")
ΝΑΝΑ, ΝΑΝΑΙΑ, ΝΑΝΑšΑΟ (variants of pan-Asiatic Nana, Sogdian nny, in a Zoroastrian context Aredvi Sura Anahita)
ΜΑΝΑΟΒΑΓΟ (manaobago, Vohu Manah )
ΟΑΔΟ (oado, Vata)
ΟΡΑΛΑΓΝΟ (orlagno, Verethragna)

Only a few Indic divinities were used as well:

ΒΟΔΔΟ (boddo, Buddha),
šΑΚΑΜΑΝΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ (shakamano boddho, Shakyamuni Buddha)
ΜΕΤΡΑΓΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ (metrago boddo, the bodhisattava Maitreya)

Additionally, ΟΗšΟ (oesho) was long considered to represent Indic Shiva, but recent studies indicate that oesho is Avestan Vayu conflated with Shiva.^[7]^[8]

Kanishka and Buddhism

Gold coin of Kanishka I with a representation of the Buddha (c.120 AD).
Obv: Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Kushan-language legend in Greek script (with the addition of the Kushan Ϸ "sh" letter): ϷΑΟΝΑΝΟϷΑΟ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΙ ΚΟϷΑΝΟ ("Shaonanoshao Kanishki Koshano"): "King of Kings, Kanishka the Kushan".
Rev: Standing Buddha in Hellenistic style, forming the gesture of "no fear" (abhaya mudra) with his right hand, and holding a pleat of his robe in his left hand. Legend in Greek script: ΒΟΔΔΟ "Boddo", for the Buddha. Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the right.

Kanishka's reputation in Buddhist tradition is based mainly on the Buddhist tradition that he convened the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir.

He provided encouragement to both the Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura school of Hindu art (An inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushana rule). Kanishka personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism and the Persian cult of Mithra.

His greatest contribution to Buddhist architecture was the Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. Archaeologists rediscovered the base of it in 1908-1909 ascertained that this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet. Reports of Chinese pilgrims such as Xuan Zang indicate that its height was 600 to 700 (Chinese) "feet" (= roughly 180-210 metres or 591-689 ft.) and was covered with jewels.^[9] Certainly this immense multi-storied building ranks among the wonders of the ancient world.

Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha, who became his religious advisor.

Buddhist coinage

The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively very few (well under one percent of all known coins of Kanishka). Several of them display Kanishka himself on the obverse, and the Buddha standing on the reverse, in Hellenistic style. A few also show the Shakyamuni Buddha and Maitreya. Like all coins of Kanishka, their design is rather rough and proportions tend to be imprecise, and the image of the Buddha is slightly corrupted, as seen in the huge oversize ears, and the feet spread apart in the same fashion as the Kushan king, indicating a rather rough imitation of pre-existing Hellenistic images.

Three types of Kanishka's Buddhist coins are known:

Known depictions of the "Buddha" (with coin legend ΒΟΔΔΟ "Boddo") in Kanishka's coinage.

The Buddha

The standing Buddha in Hellenistic style, bearing the mention "Boddo" in Greek script, holding the left corner of his cloack in his hand, and forming the abhaya mudra. Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known (the sixth one is the centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewelry, consisting in a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of heart-shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, but are quite small (about the size of an obol) compared to the other gold coins of Kanishka.

Bronze standing Buddha with features similar to those of Kanishka's coins. Gandhara, usually dated 3rd-4th century.

The Buddha is represented wearing the monastic robe, the antaravasaka, the uttarasanga, and the overcoat sanghati.

The ears are extremely large and long, a symbolic exaggeration possibly rendered necessary by the small size of the coins, but otherwise visible in some later Gandharan statues of the Buddha typically dated to the 3rd-4th century CE. He has an abundant topknot covering the usnisha, often highly stylicized in a curly or often globular manner, also visible on later Buddha statues of Gandhara.

In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins is already highly symbolic, and quite distant from the more naturalistic and Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara sculptures. On several design, a mustache is apparent. The palm of his right hand bears the Chakra mark, and his brow bear the urna. An aureola, formed by one, two or three lines, surrounds him.

The "Shakyamuni Buddha"

Depictions of the "Shakyamuni Buddha" (with legend ϷΑΚΑΜΑΝΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ "Shakamano Boddo") in Kanishka's coinage.

Depictions of "Maitreya" (with legend ΜΕΤΡΑΓΟ ΒΟΔΔΟ "Metrago Boddo") in Kanishka's coinage.

The Shakyamuni Buddha (with the legend "Sakamano Boudo", ie Shakamuni Buddha, another name for the historic Buddha Siddharta Gautama), standing to front, with left hand on hip and forming the abhaya mudra with the right hand. All these coins are in copper only, and usually rather worn.

The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is quite light compared to that on the coins in the name of Buddha, clearly showing the outline of the body, in a nearly transparent way. These are probably the first two layers of monastic clothing the antaravasaka and the uttarasanga. Also, his gown is folded over the left arm (rather than being held in the left hand as above), a feature only otherwise known in the Bimaran casket and suggestive of a scarf-like uttariya. He has an abundant topknot covering the ushnisha, and a simple or double halo, sometimes radiating, surrounds his head.

The "Maitreya Buddha"

The Bodhisattva Maitreya (with the legend "Metrago Boudo") cross-legged on a throne, holding a water pot, and also forming the Abhaya mudra. These coins are only known in copper and are badly worn. On the clearest coins, Maitreya seems to be wearing the armbands of an Indian prince, a feature often seen on the staruary of Maitreya. The throne is decorated with small columns, suggesting that the coin representation of Maitreya was directly copied from pre-existing statuary with such well-known features. The qualification of "Buddha" for Maitreya is inaccurate, as he is instead a Bodhisattva (he is the Buddha of the future). This may indicate a limited knowledge of Buddhist cosmology on the part of the Kushans.

The iconography of these three types is very different from that of the other deities depicted in Kanishka's coinage. Whether Kanishka's deities are all shown from the side, the Buddhas only are shown frontally, indicating that they were copied from contemporary frontal representations of the standing and seated Buddhas in statuary.^[10] Both representations of the Buddha and Shakyamuni have both shoulders covered by their monastic gown, indicating that the statues used as models were from the Gandhara school of art, rather than Mathura.

Kanishka casket

The "Kanishka casket", dated to 127 CE, with the Buddha surrounded by Brahma and Indra, and Kanishka standing at the center of the lower part, British Museum.

Remnants of the Kanishka Stupa in Shah-Ji-Ki-Dheri.

The "Kanishka casket" or "Kanishka reliquary", dated to the first year of Kanishka's reign in 127 CE, was discovered in a deposit chamber under Kanishka's stupa, during the archeological excavations in 1908-1909 in Shah-ji-Dheri on the outskirts of Peshawar.^[11] ^[12] It is today at the Peshawar Museum, and a copy is in the British Museum. It is said to have contained three bone fragments of the Buddha, which are now housed in Mandalay, Burma.

The casket is dedicated in Kharoshthi. The inscription reads:

"(*mahara)jasa kanishkasa kanishka-pure nagare aya gadha-karae deya-dharme sarva-satvana hita-suhartha bhavatu mahasenasa sagharaki dasa agisala nava-karmi ana*kanishkasa vihare mahasenasa sangharame"

Detail of Kanishka, surrounded by the Iranian Sun-God and Moon-God, on the Kanishka casket. British Museum.

Buddha relics from Kanishka's stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan, sent by the British to Mandalay, Burma in 1910. Teresa Merrigan, 2005

The text is signed by the maker, a Greek artist named Agesilas, who oversaw work at Kanishka's stupas (caitya), confirming the direct involvement of Greeks with Buddhist realizations at such a late date: "The servant Agisalaos, the superintendent of works at the vihara of Kanishka in the monastery of Mahasena" ("dasa agisala nava-karmi ana*kaniskasa vihara mahasenasa sangharame").

The lid of the casket shows the Buddha on a lotus pedestal, and worshipped by Brahma and Indra. The edge of the lid is decorated by a frieze of flying geese. The body of the casket represents a Kushan monarch, probably Kanishka in person, with the Iranian sun and moon gods on his side. On the sides are two images of a seated Buddha, worshiped by royal figures. A garland, supported by cherubs goes around the scene in typical Hellenistic style.

The attribution of the casket to Kanishka has been recently disputed, essentially on stylistic ground (for example the ruler shown on the casket is not bearded, to the contrary of Kanishka). Instead, the casket is often attributed to Kanishka's successor Huvishka.

Kanishka in Buddhist tradition

In Buddhist tradition, Kanishka is often described as a violent, faithless ruler before his conversion to Buddhism, as in the Sri-dharma-pitaka-nidana sutra:

"At this time the King of Ngan-si (Pahlava) was very stupid and of a violent nature….There was a bhikshu (monk) arhat who seeing the evil deeds done by the king wished to make him repent. So by his supernatural force he caused the king to see the torments of hell. The king was terrified and repented." Śri-dharma-piṭaka-nidāna sūtra ^[13]

Additionally, the arrival of Kanishka was reportedly foretold by the Buddha, as well as the construction of his stupa:

". . . the Buddha, pointing to a small boy making a mud tope….[said] that on that spot Kaṇiṣka would erect a tope by his name." Vinaya sutra ^[14]

Coin of Kanishka with the Bodhisattva Maitreya "Metrago Boudo".

The same story is repeated in a Khotanese scroll found at Dunhuang, which first described how Kanishka would arrive 400 years after the death of the Buddha. The account also describes how Kanishka came to raise his stupa:

"A desire thus arose in [Kanishka to build a vast stupa]….at that time the four world-regents learnt the mind of the king. So for his sake they took the form of young boys….[and] began a stūpa of mud....the boys said to [Kanishka] ‘We are making the Kaṇiṣka-stūpa.’….At that time the boys changed their form....[and] said to him, ‘Great king, by you according to the Buddha’s prophecy is a Saṅghārāma to be built wholly (?) with a large stūpa and hither relics must be invited which the meritorious good beings...will bring." ^[15]

Chinese pilgrims to India, such as Xuanzang, who travelled there around 630 CE also relays the story:

"Kaṇiṣka became sovereign of all Jambudvīpa (Indian subcontinent) but he did not believe in Karma, and he treated Buddhism with contumely. When he was hunting in the wild country a white hare appeared; the king gave a chase and the hare suddenly disappeared at [the site of the future stupa]….[when the construction of the stūpa was not going as planned] the king now lost patience and threw the [project] up….[but] the king became alarmed, as he [realized] he was evidently contending with supernatural powers, so he confessed his errors and made submission. These two topes are still in existence and were resorted to for cures by people afflicted with diseases." ^[16]

Transmission of Buddhism to China

Main article: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Kanishka's expansion into the Tarim Basin probably initiated the transmission of Buddhism to China.

Buddhist monks from the region of Gandhara played a key role in the development and the transmission of Buddhist ideas in the direction of northern Asia from the middle of the second century CE. The Kushan monk, Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), became the first translators of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and established a translation bureau at the Chinese capital Loyang. Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges for the following centuries.

Kanishka was probably succeeded by Huvishka. How and when this came about is still uncertain. The fact that there were other Kushana kings called Kanishka is just another complicating factor.

The airplane that was destroyed in the 1985 bombing of Air India Flight 182 was named after him.

Kanishka with the divinity Mozdoano.

Coin of Kanishka.

Coin of Kanishka found at Ahin Posh.

Coin.

In fiction

In the manga series, Berserk, the Emperor Ganishka working as Griffith's enemy in Berserk was based off King Kanishka. In the manga, he is also a profound Buddhist and adorned his empire with its respective figures and promoted it vigoriously. Like his real-life conterpart, Ganishka also decorates his palace with famous Buddhist figures, but has demonized them to suit his nature.

Kanishka is also one of the most popular songs of an argentine rock band called Los Brujos, referring to the Kushan King and his wife, released in the album "Fin de semana Salvaje(Wild WeekendI)". Los_Brujos

Notes

References

Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998). A history of India. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15481-2 ISBN 0-415-15482-0.
Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chapitre de Hiuen-Tsang)." BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322-369.

Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003). De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lattes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-9516679-2-2.

External links

Preceded by:
Vima Kadphises

Kushan Ruler

Succeeded by:
Huvishka

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Donate to Wikimedia

	How do you change a thermostat in a 2001 Chevy Cavalier with a 2.4L engine?
	How do goldfish respond to the environment?
	How is the human egg cell adapted to its function?
	Who do donkeys mate with?
	What are the keyboard shortcuts in Microsoft Word?