The northerly of the two kingdoms into which Solomon's United Monarchy divided under his son and successor, Rehoboam (I Kgs 11:43). In the south Rehoboam's accession was taken as a matter of course, so firmly rooted was the dynastic principle in David's own domain. But this was not the case in the north. In accordance with the pattern of monarchy established by David, the king had to be recognized separately by both Judah and Israel, and therefore Rehoboam went to Shechem, the center of the disaffected tribes, in order to parley with them. The heavy economic burden placed upon the northern tribes by Solomon (I Kgs 9:15-19; 11:26-27) led the assembly of Israel to demand of the new king a reduction of taxes as a condition for their acceptance of his rule. Unable to find a suitable way of complying with these demands without risking his prestige, or causing administrative dislocations and loss of control, Rehoboam rejected the request (I kgs 12:1-14). The king's defiant reply led to open revolt. The elders of Israel crowned Jeroboam son of Nebat, a member of the traditionally anti-Davidic Ephraim tribe, who had returned from exile in Egypt (I Kgs 2:20). Severing their ties with Jerusalem, the people of Israel renewed the slogan that had characterized the revolt of Sheba son of Bichri: "What portion have we in David? We have no inheritance in the son of Jesse" (I Kgs 12:16). Thus the north seceded and established the Kingdom of Israel, in contradistinction to the Kingdom of Judah in the south. The Southern Kingdom consisted of the territories of the tribes of Judah, Simeon and Benjamin whereas the Northern Kingdom included all the territories of the remaining tribes, and of the subjugated nations of Moab and Ammon. Unlike Judah, which maintained the continuity of the Davidic dynasty, the monarchy in Israel was dependent upon the continued support of the ten tribes which had brought about its establishment. Intertribal rivalries naturally led to instability, as opposed to the dynastic continuity of the Southern Kingdom.
The Kingdom of Judah and the house of David continued to regard the seceders as rebels, and their action as illegal and sinful, a view also held by the biblical historiographer. Fierce military clashes resulted, and the fratricidal war lasted throughout Rehoboam's reign. Jeroboam was determined to detach Israel from Judah, both politically and religiously. Fearing that if the people sacrificed in Jerusalem, there would be a resurgence of loyalty to Rehoboam (I Kgs 12:27), Jeroboam insisted on a ritual totally different from that practiced in Jerusalem. In order to discourage pilgrimage to the Jerusalem Temple, Jeroboam changed the festival calendar (I Kgs 12:33; cf II Chr chap. 30). He appointed priests not of the traditional priestly tribe of Levi, who had been part of the administration of the United Kingdom, and were thus suspected of loyalty to the house of David. In so doing, he brought about the collapse of the administrative system in Israel, resulting in a severely disorganized and weakened kingdom. Jeroboam selected Shechem as his capital, and established Penuel in Transjordan and Tirzah as supplementary capitals or royal retreats (I Kgs 12:25; 14:17), perhaps in order to form a satisfactory balance between stable monarchy and tribal traditions. He revived the ancient cultic centers at the borders of his kingdom, Bethel and Dan, in an attempt to lead the people back to the idea of religious decentralization. However, the very prophetic circles which had supported Jeroboam were alienated from him when he placed two golden calves in the royal shrines. Ahijah the Shilonite, who had symbolically prophesied Jeroboam's rise to power (I Kgs 11:29-39), now predicted the imminent fall of his dynasty.
Five years after the division, Pharaoh Shishak of Egypt invaded Judah (I Kgs 14:25-26), but according to a record of the campaign on the wall of the temple of Amon at Karnak, Shishak also destroyed the largest Israelite cities and devastated the most fertile areas of the Northern Kingdom. War between the two hostile sister kingdoms continued during the short reign of Rehoboam's son Abijah (II Chr 13:13-19), and the Philistines threatened Israel. The wars and fortifications strained Israel's resources to the limit and Jeroboam was compelled to increase taxes, thus undermining the very reason for Israel's secession from the United Monarchy.
Jeroboam's dynasty came to an end when his son Nadab was assassinated by Baasha, son of Ahijah of the tribe of Issachar, who founded a dynasty of his own (I Kgs 15:25-34) thus ending the hegemony of the tribe of Ephraim over the Northern Kingdom. The new king sought to win over the Aramean king Ben-Hadad I, but he was outbid by King Asa of Judah, with the consequence that several districts in the extreme north had to be ceded to the king of Damascus (I Kgs 15:9-22). The new dynasty in Israel was as short-lived as that which it had destroyed.
With Baasha's death, civil war broke out in Israel and a few ministers struggled to obtain the throne. Baasha's son, Elah, was assassinated in a plot instigated by Zimri, one of his captains, who then mounted the throne. Another officer, Omri, won the support of the army for himself, and marched against Zimri who, unable to hold out, set fire to the palace and perished in the flames (I Kgs 16:15-20). However, the nation remained divided, part of it supporting Tibni son of Ginath, and only after several years of conflict did Omri succeed in consolidating his position (I Kgs 16:22).
The accession of Omri to the throne was the initial step in consolidating the Northern Kingdom and raising it to the rank of a power in the ancient Near East. Omri was an able and energetic ruler. He founded a new capital in Samaria (I Kgs 16:24), and established a dynasty that prospered for over 40 years. So outstanding were his, and his son Ahab's achievements, that even after the fall of the Omride dynasty, Assyrian inscriptions referred to the Kingdom of Israel as the house of Omri. The Israelite king resolutely met the difficulties bequeathed by the former dynasties. He managed to end Philistine molestation, and to reduce Moab once again to a state of vassalage, exacting an enormous annual tribute from its king. However, Omri was apparently subject to heavy Aramean pressure, forcing him to grant special economic privileges to the Arameans in Samaria and possibly to recognize the sovereignty of Ben-Hadad (I Kgs 20:34). Eventually, Omri succeeded in establishing an independent foreign policy, concluding a peace treaty with Judah thus bringing the strife between their two kingdoms to an end. He foresaw the need of an alliance with the Phoenicians, sealing it by the marriage of Ahab, the heir apparent, to Jezebel, the Sidonian king's daughter (I Kgs 16:31). The Israel-Phoenician alliance gave Phoenicia a tremendous economic, cultural, social and spiritual influence over Israel.
When Omri's son Ahab ascended the throne, the Kingdom of Israel had been consolidated both politically and economically. Ahab was concerned with the Aramean peril, and his reign was marked by numerous clashes with the northern power. Ahab had the political wisdom to hold fast to the policies inaugurated by his father; he beautified his capital with extravagant buildings and palaces (I Kgs 22:39); while, to please his Tyrian wife and her compatriots, he built a temple to the chief deity of Tyre, Baal-Melkart. The continuing process of social and religious integration with Phoenica brought upon Ahab the wrath of the prophet Elijah, as well as that of the populace who bitterly resented the penetration of foreign cults, and regarded idolatry as the cause of all evil.
Elijah, realizing that the future of Israel's religion was in jeopardy, summoned a contest between the prophets of Baal and the prophets of the Lord, resulting in the slaying of the former (I Kgs 18:15-45). Exasperated by the slaughter of her prophets, Jezebel ordered Elijah's death, but he escaped to the wilderness. The fate of the house of Ahab was irrevocably sealed after the incident of Naboth's vineyard, which represented gross social injustice (I Kgs chap. 21). Due to this, Ahab is given a negative appraisal in biblical historiography, though his positive aspects as an able ruler who strengthened the solidarity between Judah and Israel are recognized. His military power is attested in the inscription of Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria, pertaining to the battle of Karkar (853 B.C.) where Ahab occupied a place of honor among the kings of Syria who allied themselves against the Assyrians. Israel's armored strength which supplied 2,000 war-chariots and 10,000 infantry, was the greatest among the allies. Ahab fell in the battle of Ramoth Gilead against his former allies, the Arameans (I Kgs 22:37). His reign had been a period in which Israel assumed a considerable position in the international affairs of the region.
Ahaziah, Ahab's son and successor, died after a reign of two years (I Kgs 22:51). He was succeeded by his brother Jehoram who invited Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to join him in an ill-fated campaign, intended to reestablish Jehoram's authority over Moab, which had thrown off the Israelite yoke on the death of Ahab (II Kgs 3:4-27). Driven to desperation, Mesha king of Moab, offered his eldest son as a sacrifice to his national god Chemosh on the wall of the besieged city, at which point the allied kings raised the siege and returned home. Thus Israel lost control of Moab and later Ammon. A further defeat was suffered by Jehoram, now allied with Jehoshaphat's successor, Ahaziah, in their attempt to recapture Ramoth Gilead from Aram, which was hard pressed by Assyria (II Kgs 8:28).
These defeats, resulting in the loss of international prestige as well as the economic regression caused by the collapse of Israelite rule in Transjordan and the loss of principal trade routes, strengthened the opposition of the military leaders against Jehoram. This opposition was encouraged by the prophets, led by Elisha (II Kgs 9:1-10), who resented the house of Ahab because of its Phoenician idol worship, and was supported by the people who had suffered economic hardship. The time was ripe for rebellion, and when it came it was led by Jehu, an army officer who instigated the revolt by calling for reprisals against the house of Omri. With great cruelty he killed the royal family, its courtiers and every follower of the Baal cult (II Kgs 10:8-28). In so doing, he destroyed the economic and political base of his kingdom. Now vulnerable to the pressures of Hazael, the new and powerful king of Aram-Damascus, Jehu had no choice but to submit to Shalmaneser III, in order to save Israel. The Black Obelisk of the Assyrian monarch describes the payment of tribute from five different regions, and Jehu is portrayed as humbly prostrating himself before Shalmaneser, accompanied by Israelites bearing rich tribute.
When Assyrian pressure relaxed, Hazael king of Aram-Damascus renewed his aggressive policy, launching a harsh and cruel invasion of Israel. The distressing conditions furnished an opportunity for the smaller neighboring nations – Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Philistines and Tyrians to make predatory incursions. The misery reached its climax during the reign of Jehu's son, Jehoahaz when the Kingdom of Israel virtually lost its independence (II Kgs 13:7). Hazael's successor, Ben-Hadad III, besieged Samaria and brought the beleaguered population to the verge of famine. Some relief from the Arameans was provided by Adad-Nirari III, king of Assyria, who invaded Aram and besieged Damascus (802 B.C.) and was designated a "deliverer" in the biblical sources (II Kgs 13:5).
Jehoash, son of Jehoahaz, utilized the decline of Aram to recapture territories taken from Israel during the reigns of his predecessors (II Kgs 13:25). Aram's decline following her war with Assyria allowed the two sister kingdoms to fill the ensuing political vacuum. Thus the period of Jeroboam son of Jehoash was one of renewed prosperity for Israel (the Book of Amos reflects this period). II Kings 14:23-29 indicates that Jeroboam II extended the boundaries of Israel to include Aram-Damascus, Transjordan and even the kingdom of Hamath, as in the days of David. It seems that Jeroboam, working in harmony with Uzziah, king of Judah, who had reconquered Elath, now regained control of the trade routes to the Red Sea and Arabian ports, and in order to consolidate his rule to the east of the Jordan, distributed large pieces of land among his officers and followers. These individuals developed into wealthy owners of estates and played an influential role in the final days of the kingdom in the frequent changes which followed Jeroboam's death.
The dynasty of Jehu came to an end when Zechariah son of Jeroboam II was assassinated by Shallum. The conspirator held power for only a month, until he was deposed by Menahem (II kgs 15:10-17). The civil war was precipitated by the contest of two rival parties, the one favoring Egypt, the other – Assyria.
Under Menahem the pro-Assyrian party won the ascendancy, the advances of the powerful Assyrian monarch Tiglath-Pileser III leaving no other choice. The biblical account of Menahem as having been forced to pay a heavy tax to Pul (i.e., Tiglath-Pileser III, II Kgs 15:19) is attested by the reference to "Menahem of Samaria" in an Assyrian inscription as one of those who paid tribute to the Assyrian monarch. It is possible that these taxes were collected in the form of agricultural products, as ostraca found in Samaria would tend to suggest.
However, the tribute paid by Menahem to preserve the entity of his declining kingdom was of no avail. His son Pekahiah lost control of affairs and fell in a conspiracy led by Pekah son of Remaliah (735-733 B.C.), one of his own officers (II Kgs 15:25). The anti-Assyrian party was now in control. Supported by the big landowners in Gilead, Pekah formed an alliance with Rezin of Aram, as well as with Tyre, Sidon and several Philistine towns, against the Assyrian threat. When Judah refused to participate, war was declared and the allied armies of Israel and Damascus marched into Judah. On the advice of the prophet Isaiah (II Kgs 16:7), Ahaz, king of Judah, appealed to the Assyrian king, who reacted by besieging Damascus and turning it into an Assyrian province. Israel was stripped of Gilead and Galilee and the population was deported to Assyria. This marked the beginning of the Assyrian captivity. Samaria was still left intact, because the opposition removed Pekah and placed his assassin, Hoshea, upon the throne (II Kgs 17:1).
With the death of Tiglath-Pileser III, revolt broke out throughout Syria and Israel, resulting in Shalmaneser V's punitive military campaign, in which he besieged Samaria for three years. The capital fell in 722 B.C., its inhabitants were exiled, and Samaria was turned into an Assyrian province by the next Assyrian king, Sargon II (II Kgs 17:6; cf 18:9-11). The last remnant of Israel was organized as the province of Samaria, and in place of the citizens of Ephraim and western Manasseh who were deported en masse to Upper Mesopotamia and other places throughout the Assyrian empire, Sargon colonized the land with foreigners from Babylonia, Hamath and elsewhere (II Kgs 17:24). This new influx mingled with the surviving Israelite population, and their descendants were known as Samaritans. Thus Israel's political life had ended, after an existence of just over 200 years.
See also JUDAH, KINGDOM OF.
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL – KINGS
B.C.
928-907 Jeroboam I
907-906 Nadab
906-883 Baasha
883-882 Elah
882 Zimri
882-871 Omri
871-852 Ahab
852-851 Ahaziah
851-842 Jehoram
842-814 Jehu
814-800 Jehoahaz
800-784 Jehoash
784-748 Jeroboam II
748-747 Zechariah
748-747 Shallum
747-737 Menahem
737-735 Pekahiah
735-733 Pekah
733-724 Hoshea
