Livy

Livy (ca. 64 B.C.-ca. A.D. 12), or Titus Livius, was a Roman historian who lived in the period when Augustus was building the Roman Empire out of the ruins of the republican system. In a life of quiet study Livy became the leading historian of his day.

Livy was born in Patavium (Padua), in his day one of the largest and most prosperous cities in Italy. St. Jerome gives 59 B.C. as the date of Livy's birth, but it is probable that he was mistaken and that Livy was born in 64 B.C. In Patavium he received an education similar to that given to any wealthy young Roman except that he did not have the usual culminating period of study in a Greek city. He may have started adult life as a teacher of rhetoric in his native town, and there is some evidence that he also wrote works on philosophy, which have not survived, but soon he conceived a project for a large-scale history of Rome.

By 30 B.C. Livy had moved to Rome, and from this time on he lived and worked mainly in the capital. He saw no military service and took no part in politics, and as far as we know he never traveled outside Italy, apart from a possible trip to Athens. Soon after his arrival in Rome he became acquainted with Augustus and remained on friendly terms with the Emperor and his family thereafter, but there is no sign that he depended on imperial patronage for his livelihood, as Horace and Virgil depended on the patronage of Maecenas. Livy's family was prosperous, and he probably inherited enough property to enable him to devote all his time and energy to his history, on which he continued to work almost to the end of his days. He died in Patavium in A.D. 12 (or 17 according to Jerome.)

Early Roman Historiography

When Livy started his work, Romans had been writing history for 200 years, and the nature of the genre was well established. Earlier historians had either covered the whole story of Rome from its foundation to their own day or had dealt in much greater detail with a short segment of more recent history. Most of them were members of the aristocratic ruling class of Rome and had played some part in the wars and politics of the republic.

These works were written mostly according to the annalists system, that is, with all the events of each year discussed together, even if they had little or no logical connection with each other. This was an awkward system, especially for periods when two or three sets of events might be going on simultaneously for several years in different parts of the Mediterranean world, but by Livy's day the technique had become traditional. Another traditional element which seems odd to modern readers is the custom of including in the narrative lengthy speeches which purport to be the actual words uttered on various occasions by leading men. This practice, taken over by Roman historians from Greek models, Livy also accepted without question.

Livy's History

Livy's great work, Ab urbe condita (From the Foundation of the City), covered the history of Rome from its mythical foundation in 753 B.C. to his own day, and its composition went on continually throughout his life. The first five books were published between 27 and 25 B.C., and Livy continued the history's publication thereafter in periodic batches of several books. It is probable that the last 22 books, covering the career of Augustus to 9 B.C., were not published until after the Emperor's death in A.D. 14 and, therefore, also after Livy's own death.

At its completion, Ab urbe condita was an enormous work in no less than 142 books. Only about a quarter of the text has survived - we have 35 books complete: I-X, which cover the first 460 years of Rome's history, and XXI-XLV, which cover the events of 219-167 B.C. In addition we have Periochae, or summaries, of all but two of the lost books (and of the extant books as well), but these are very brief and were compiled not from Livy's full text but from an abridged edition that is now lost.

Moreover, the anonymous compiler of the Periochae was capable of misunderstanding the text in front of him, and consequently the summaries give only a very shadowy picture of the lost books. The scale of the work increased steadily as Livy got closer to his own times. Book I covered the whole of the regal period, nearly 250 years, and the next 9 books dealt with more than 200 years but the 10 books XXI-XXX cover only the 18 years of the Second Punic War, and by the time he got down to the 1st century B.C., Livy was devoting a whole book to almost every year.

As a Historian

Except for the boldness and scope of his undertaking, and the untiring industry with which he worked at it throughout a lifetime, Livy cannot really be classed as one of the world's major historians. For the most part he depended for his material on earlier writers of the 2d and 1st centuries B.C., and there is no sign that he made any attempt to consult the available documentary evidence, which was not inconsiderable. Unfortunately we cannot judge how he dealt with the history of his own times, for which he must have had to do most of the research himself, as the Periochae of the last 20 books are more than usually brief and uninformative.

In his choice of sources to follow, Livy was often quite shrewd, as when he picked the Greek historian Polybios as his main guide for the Eastern wars of the early 2d century B.C., and if elsewhere his sources were less reliable, that was sometimes because they were all he had. But Livy's use of them was quite uncritical, and his choice between alternative accounts of an event was often determined not so much by logic or reason as by a preference for a story that pointed a moral or redounded to the greater glory of Rome.

Livy's ignorance of war and politics made it hard for him to judge properly the reliability of his sources or to allow for any political bias that might have affected them. In addition he was sometimes careless in matters of chronology, and although his knowledge of geography was slight, he does not seem to have taken much trouble to see for himself even those sites which lay close at hand in Italy. But for all its weaknesses Livy's history is still one of the best accounts of the Roman republic, and the loss of three-quarters of his great work is one of the most serious gaps in our knowledge of Roman literature.

As a Writer

Livy's merit as a writer is incontestable. His style, which owed much to Cicero and to Latin poetry, was vivid and colorful. He approached his task with a vision of the greatness and splendor of that past which was certainly not very realistic but was still a noble and inspiring concept. He brought to his work an old-fashioned concept of moral excellence which may not have enhanced his performance as a historian, but, together with the attractive literary style with which he told so effectively the story of the Roman Republic, and particularly the half-legendary tales of its earliest days, it has made his history an enduring part of the heritage of Western Europe.

Further Reading

There is a complete translation of all that is extant of Livy's history, including the Periochae, by B. O. Foster and others (14 vols., 1919-1959). Extracts from the complete text were translated, with an introduction, by Moses Hadas and J. P. Poe, A History of Rome: Selections (1962); and there are two sets of extracts translated by Aubrey de Selincourt under the titles Early History of Rome: Books I-V (1960) and The War with Hannibal: Books XXI-XXX (1965).

The best full account of Livy's career and work is P. G. Walsh, Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods (1961). Livy and his work are examined in a survey of classical Historiography by Stephen Usher, The Historians of Greece and Rome (1970). The best survey of the earlier Roman historians on whom Livy depended is by E. Badian in T. A. Dorey, ed., Latin Historians (1966), which also contains a brief account of Livy by P. G. Walsh. Another account of earlier Roman historians with some discussion of Hellenistic Historiography is in M. L. W. Laistner, The Greater Roman Historians (1947), which includes what is perhaps a too favorable account of Livy's work.

For more information on Livy, visit Britannica.com.

Livy (Titus Livius) (59 BC–AD 17), Roman historian. He was born at Patavium (Padua) in north-east Italy, probably of a well-to-do family, but little is known of his life. The evidence suggests that he did not come to Rome until his adulthood. There he gave readings of his work, and won and retained the friendship of the emperor Augustus, who respected his republican sympathies, and encouraged the future emperor Claudius in his historical studies. Livy appears never to have held any public office, but to have devoted his life to literature and history. He began his immense ‘History of Rome from its Foundation’ (Ab urbe condita libri) in or shortly before 29 BC, and published it in instalments; it immediately brought him fame. He survived Augustus by three years, and is said to have died at Patavium.

The history consisted of 142 books, of which the last twenty-two dealt with the events of his own day from the death of Cicero in 43 BC. An epitome of it was written as early as the first century AD, and from this were compiled periochae or short abstracts of each book, of which there were perhaps two versions. Of the original work there survive books 1–10, 21–45 (41 and 43 incomplete), and a palimpsest fragment of book 91. The epitome is lost except for the parts covering books 37–40 and 48–55, which have been found on an Egyptian papyrus in the twentieth century; the periochae survive for all the books except 136 and 137. Books 1–5 describe the legendary founding of the city, the period of the kings, and the early republic down to its conquest by the Gauls in 390 BC. Books 6–15 deal with the subjugation of Italy (the Samnite Wars) before the conflict with Carthage, 16–30 with the first two Punic Wars; 31–45 with the Macedonian and other eastern wars down to 167. Of the subsequent books, now lost, 46–70 covered the succeeding period to the outbreak of the Social War; 71–90 to the death of Sulla; 91–108 to the Gallic War; 109–16 the civil war to the death of Caesar; 117–33 to the death of Antony; 134–42 the rule of Augustus down to 9 BC. The whole survived to late antiquity, but the Middle Ages knew no more books than are known today.

The work opens with an introduction in which Livy explains his purpose, to commemorate the deeds of the leading nation of the world, to describe the men and the mode of life that had raised Rome to greatness, and the decline of morals which brought about the troubles of the first century BC, so that his readers might thereby learn important lessons. His general purpose is thus ethical and didactic. His methods were those of the fourth century Greek Isocrates (see HISTORIOGRAPHY): it is the duty of the historian to tell the truth and be impartial, but the truth must be elaborated and given literary form. Livy's attitude to the early legends which he relates is that he neither affirms nor denies their truth, but regards it as of no great importance: if the legends are not true, they resemble the truth. They illustrate those aspects of Roman character which led to Rome's imperial greatness, as well as the true traditions to which Livy hoped, in the early Augustan period, that Rome might return from the moral decay, luxury, and indiscipline of the recent past. Livy used as his sources the earlier annalists, then Polybius (in books 31–45), and for the latest books Posidonius, Julius Caesar, and Augustus' own Memoirs. He relied on written histories and made comparatively little use of original records, nor does he criticize his source material; he lacked the scientific method and the insight of Thucydides and Polybius. His inexperience of military affairs makes his descriptions of battles unrealistic; he has little understanding of political institutions, and throws little light on economic conditions or social life in Rome. He sometimes confuses his sources or misunderstands them so that his narratives are inconsistent; they are often given an anachronistic or implausible slant because of his ignorance of conditions at different times and in different places, e.g. in early Rome or in the East. But significant events are treated dramatically and memorably: the action is set against what Livy imagines its background to be in time and place; previous deliberations, changes of mind and heart, the characters of the protagonists, all such circumstances are explored and explained, so that the reader is presented with a story fully comprehensible in the way in which Livy wishes it to be comprehended, whatever its relation to actuality. Livy's prose is eloquent, clear, orderly, and full, developed from that of Cicero. Asinius Pollio saw in it an ement which he humorously called ‘Patavinity’, i.e. provincialism.

Livy was much praised by his immediate successors, Tacitus, the Senecas, and Quintilian, and drawn upon by Plutarch and Lucan. He is little heard of in the Middle Ages, but the Renaissance adopted him with enthusiasm. Dante speaks of him as the historian ‘who errs not’. Among the many famous narratives found in the extant books are the following.

Book 1. Romulus and Remus (chapters 4–7); the rape of the Sabines (9–13); the fight of the Horatii and Curiatii and the death of Horatia (24–6); the coming of Lucumo (Tarquinius Priscus) to Rome (34); the accession of Lucius Tarquinius and the crimes of Tullia (46–8); the rape of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius and the revenge of Brutus (57–60).

Book 2. The execution of the sons of Brutus by their father (5); ‘how Horatius kept the bridge’ (10); Mucius Scaevola's attempt to kill Porsena (12); Cloelia swimming the Tiber (13); Menenius Agrippa and the parable of the belly and the members (32); the meeting of Coriolanus and his mother outside Rome (40); the 306 Fabii marching out against the Veientes (49).

Book 3. The summoning of Cincinnatus from the fields to be dictator (24); Appius Claudius and Verginia (44–58).

Book 4. The fight between Cossus and the Etruscan king, in which the former won the spolia opima (19).

Book 5. The siege of Veii, and the Greeks in Rome.

Book 6. The execution of M. Manlius Capitolinus (20).

Book 7. M. Curtius leaping into the abyss (6).

Book 8. T. Manlius Torquatus ordering the execution of his son who, in defiance of orders, had fought and killed an enemy chief (7); P. Decius Mus ‘devoting’ himself to death (see DEVOTIO) for the victory of his army (9); the anger of Papirius Cursor against his magister equitum, Q. Fabius Maximus Rullus (30).

Book 9. The disaster of the Caudine Forks (1); and the unexpected digression on what would have happened had Alexander the Great encountered the Romans (17).

Book 21. The character of Hannibal (4), the siege of Saguntum (12), Hannibal's crossing of the Alps (30), the battle of the Trebia (52).

Book 22. The battle of Lake Trasimene (4); the conflict of Q. Fabius Maximus (grandson of Fabius above) with his impetuous magister equitum, Minucius (14); the defeat at Cannae (44); Maharbal's criticism of Hannibal's delay, that he knew how to conquer but not how to use his victory (51).

Book 23. Hannibal at Capua, the debilitating effect of Capuan luxury on his army (45), and the turning point of the war.

Book 24. The siege of Syracuse by Marcellus and the defensive devices of Archimedes (34).

Book 25. The capture of Syracuse (24) and the death of Archimedes (31).

Book 26. Hannibal's approach within three miles of Rome (10; the land on which his camp stands is sold in the city at its full price, 11); Scipio Africanus appointed commander in Spain at the age of 24 (18), and capturing Nova Carthago (46); his generosity and restraint in the treatment of a beautiful Spanish captive (50).

Book 27. The interception and defeat of Hasdrubal.

Book 30. The romantic story of Sophonisba, Syphax, and Masinissa (15); the battle of Zama (32).

Book 33. The defeat of Philip V of Macedon at Cynoscephalae (7); the notable speech of Flamininus on making peace with a defeated enemy (12); the proclamation of Greek freedom at the Isthmian games (32).

Book 34. The repeal of the Oppian sumptuary law (1).

Book 35. The conversation of Scipio and Hannibal at Ephesus about great military commanders (14).

Book 38. The proud reminder by Scipio Africanus when tried for embezzlement that the day was the anniversary of his victory at Zama (51).

Book 39. The discovery and suppression of the Bacchanalian orgies (8); the character of Cato the Censor (40).

Book 44. The victory of Pydna (40).

This article is about the life and times of Titus Livius. For information and sources relating to his History of Rome, see Ab Urbe Condita (book).

Livy
Titus Livius (fictitious portrait)
Born	ca. 59 BC Padua
Died	ca. AD 17
Occupation	historian
Genres	History
Subjects	History, biography, oratory
Literary movement	Golden Age of Latin

Titus Livius (59 BC – AD 17), known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own time. He was on familiar terms with the Julio-Claudian family, advising Augustus' grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, as a young man not long before 14 AD in a letter to take up the writing of history.^[1] Livy and Augustus' wife, Livia, were from the same clan in different locations, although not related by blood.

Contents 1 Life 1.1 Dates 1.2 Background 2 Works 3 Reception 4 Notes 5 Bibliography 6 Additional reading 7 External links

Life

Dates

The authority supplying the information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesaria, an early Christian-era bishop. One of his works was an epitome (or summary) of world history in ancient Greek, termed the Chronikon, dating from the early 4th century. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome. The entire work survives in Armenian. St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist.^[2]

Eusebius' work consists of two books, the Chronographia, a summary of history in annalist form, and the Chronikoi Kanones, tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon, probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon.

The main problem with the information given in the MSS is that between them they often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely and reformat what they do include. A date may be in AUC or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius.

The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As a result standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively.^[3] All sources use the same first Olympiad, 776/775-773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad) these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC.^[4]

Jerome says that Livy was born the same year as Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus and died the same year as Ovid.^[3] Messala, however, was born earlier, in 64 BC, and Ovid's death, usually taken to be the same year as Livy's, is more uncertain. As an alternative view, Ronald Syme argues for 64 BC-12 AD as a range for Livy, setting the death of Ovid at 12.^[5] A death date of 12, however, removes Livy from Augustus' best years and makes him depart for Padua without the good reason of the second emperor, Tiberius, being not as tolerant of his republicanism. The contradiction remains; there is no non-speculative solution.

Background

According to Jerome and numerous other sources, Livy was a native of Patavium, the modern Padua.^[3] Going by name, he belonged to the Livia gens, or family, but no agnomen has survived. His works show that he was educated in oratory and Greek, which is an indicator of rank, although the Livii were of plebeian origin. Patavium was of multi-ethnic origin (but Livius is a good Roman name) and did not become a Roman municipium until 49 BC. Livy was ten years old then. The Patavians were enrolled in the Fabii,^[6] but perhaps not Romans who already had a good name, as Livy kept his and without agnomen. Whether the fact that the emperor Augustus' much loved and respected wife, Livia, was born into the Roman branch of the Livia gens, had anything to do with Augustus' tolerance of Livy's republican views is not known.

Various authors testify that Livy married and had children. Quintilian gives a fragment of a letter from Livy to his son.^[7] The same son became a writer considered an authority by Pliny the Elder in Books V and VI of Natural History. Seneca the Elder mentions a son-in-law, Lucius Magius.^[8] Two epitaphs from Padua are considered relevant: CIL V 2975 commemorates Titus Livius, son of Gaius, his two sons: Titus Livius Priscus and Titus Livius Longus, as well as Livy's wife, Cassia;^[9] and CIL V 2865, marking the resting place of a freedman of Livia Quarta, daughter of Titus Livius. Evidently the Livii of Padua continued to reside there and one must presume that after sojourns elsewhere they came home to die.

At some time early in his career Livy moved to Rome, probably for his education. A few references in Book I suggest he was at Rome at or prior to 27 BC, when he began work on his History of Rome.^[10][11] It would have been in Rome also that he had or overheard a conversation with Augustus, who did not acquire that title until 27 BC.^[12] In that year, if born in 59 BC, Livy was 32.

Works

Main article: Ab Urbe Condita (book)

Livy's only surviving work is the "History of Rome" (Ab Urbe Condita), which was his career from an age in middle life, probably 32, until he left Rome for Padua in old age, probably after the death of Augustus in the reign of Tiberius. When he began this work he was already past his youth; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. Seneca the Younger gives brief mention that he was also known as an orator and philosopher and had written some treatises in those fields from a historical point of view.^[13]

Reception

Livy's History of Rome was in demand from the publication of the first packet. Livy became so famous that a man from Cadiz travelled to Rome just to see him, and once he had seen, returned home.^[14] The popularity of the work continued through the entire classical period. A number of Roman authors used Livy, including Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome, from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.

Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey. Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus. He did not abolish the republic de facto but adapted its institutions into the empire.

Livy's enthusiasm for the republic is evident from the first pentade of his work, and yet the Julio-Claudian family (the imperial family) were as much fans of Livy as anyone. He could not have been an advocate of any sort of sedition in favor of restoring the republic; he would have been put on trial for treason and executed, as many had been and would be. He must have been viewed as a harmless and relevant advocate of the ancient morality, which was a known public stance of the citizens of Patavium. His relationship to Augustus is defined primarily by a passage from Tacitus^[15] in which Cremutius Cordus is put on trial for his life for offenses no worse than Livy's and defends himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows:

"I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius, whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cneius Pompeius in such a panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship.

To avoid conviction, while waiting for a verdict Cordus committed suicide by self-starvation. His worst fears were realized in absentia: his books were sentenced to be burned by the aediles, but they performed the task without zeal and many escaped. Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius' reign certainly allow for speculation.

During the Middle Ages interest in Livy fell off.^[16] Due to the length of the work the literate class were already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that MSS began to be lost without replacement.

The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livy manuscripts. The poet, Beccadelli, sold a country home for the money to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio.^[17] Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched a search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an emended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the Discourses on Livy is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome. Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights.

After a few thousand years of Livy being studied by the schoolboys of every western population, moderns have developed their own views of Livy and his place in the ancient world, which were not current in ancient times. For example, one text on western civilization pronounces: "Livy was the prose counterpart of Vergil", as both have been standard in the study of Golden Age Latin literature.^[18] Golden Age Latin was not known as such in classical times and the ancient reader could choose from a vastly larger bibliography; but in fact, private reading was a privilege of the literate few, who had the wealth to buy manuscripts or have them copied and had the time for library research. Public readings of works, however, were common and were the main way in which an author became known.

Notes

1. ^ Foster (1874), p. xii, citing Suetonius, Claudius, xli.
2. ^ Fotheringham (1905), P. 1.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "St. Jerome ( Hieronymus ): Chronological Tables - for Olympiads 170 to 203 [= 100 B.C. - 36 A.D.]". Attalus.org. http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html. Retrieved 14 August 2009. 
4. ^ Livius, Titus; Seeley, John Robert (Contributor) (1881). Livy, Book 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1. 
5. ^ Kraus (1994), p.1, citing several articles by Syme.
6. ^ Foster (1874), pp. ix-x.
7. ^ Foster (1874), p. xii, citing Quintilian VIII.2.18.
8. ^ Foster (1874) p. xiii, citing Seneca, Controversiae, X.Preface.2.
9. ^ Foster (1874), pp. xii-xiii.
10. ^ Livius, Titus. "I.4". History of Rome. "Within the last ten years we appointed decemvirs to commit the laws to writing and then we abolished their office." 
11. ^ Livius, Titus. "I.8". History of Rome. "I think that they anticipated what actually happened, that the influence of those who held the office would soon enhance its authority and dignity." 
12. ^ Livius, Titus. "IV.20". History of Rome. "Augustus Caesar, the founder and restorer of all the temples, rebuilt the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, which had fallen to ruin through age, and I once heard him say that after entering it he read that inscription on the linen cuirass with his own eyes." 
13. ^ Seneca the Younger. "Letter 41.9". Moral Letters to Lucilius. "...for Livy wrote both dialogues (which should be ranked as history no less than as philosophy), and works which professedly deal with philosophy." 
14. ^ Pliny the Younger, Epistles, II.3.
15. ^ Annales IV.34.
16. ^ Foster (1874), p. xxiv.
17. ^ Foster (1874), p. xxiv.
18. ^ Harrison, John Baugham; Sullivan, Richard Eugene (1971). A short history of Western civilization (3 ed.). Knopf. p. 198. 

Bibliography

• Foster, B.O. (2008) [1874]. Livy. Trollope Press. 
• Livy; Christina Shuttleworth Kraus (Editor) (1994). Ab vrbe condita Book VI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Additional reading

• Dorey, T.A., ed. (1971), Livy (London & Toronto: Routledge & K. Paul) 
• Fotheringham, John Knight (1905). The Bodleian Manuscript of Jerome's Version of the Chronicles of Eusebius. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 
• Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198606413. 
• Kraus, C. S.; Woodman, A. J. (2006). Latin Historians. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199222933. 
• Syme, Ronald (1959). "Livy and Augustus". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 64: 27-87.  Also in Badian, E., ed. (1979), Roman Papers (Oxford: Oxford University Press) I: pp. 400-454 .
• Walsh, P.G. (1966), Dorey, Thomas Alan; Thompson, E.A., eds., "Ch 5 Livy", Latin Historians, Studies in Latin Literature and its Influence (London: Routledge & K. Paul): pp. 115-142 

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Livy.

For links to the surviving works of Livy in Latin and English, see Ab Urbe Condita (book).

• Lendering, Jona (2006-2009). "Livy (1): Life" (html). Livius Articles on Ancient History. Livius.org. http://www.livius.org/li-ln/livy/livy.htm. Retrieved 13 August 2009. 

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