- This page is about the Roman dictator Sulla. For the Celtic goddess sometimes called Sulla, see Sulis.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin:
L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX)[1] (ca. 138
BC–78 BC), usually known simply as Sulla, was a Roman general, consul and dictator.
A gifted and effective general, Sulla marched his armies on Rome twice; enjoying the absolute power of a dictator. Though he
resigned his complete command of the Republic, he is often seen as having hastened the end of the Republic by his example.
His character was sometimes described as being half fox, and half lion, due to his perceived cunning and bravery;
Machiavelli would later allude to this description of Sulla in outlining the most
desirable characteristics of a prince.[2]
Sulla was described by ancient sources as having golden-reddish hair, a somewhat rare physical trait among Romans, and
piercing gray eyes that could intimidate all but the sternest.
Life
Early years
Sulla was born into a branch of the patrician Cornelii gens, but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at
the time of his birth. Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth amongst Rome’s low-lifes—comics, actors, lute-players and
dancers—at which time he met the Roman actor Metrobius, whom Plutarch describes as a female impersonator. Sulla remained romanticly attached to him throughout his life, and
even when both were quite old, he never attempted to conceal this sentimental attachment[3].
Despite his early waywardness, it seems certain that Sulla received a good education. He was fluent in Greek, a sure sign in
Rome of an educated man, and Sallust declares him well-read and intelligent. The means by which
Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics, the Cursus honorum, are not clear, although Plutarch refers to two inheritances; one from his stepmother and
the other from a low-born but rich unmarried lady[4].
Africa and the capture of Jugurtha
In 107 BC, Sulla was nominated quaestor to Gaius
Marius, who had been elected consul for that year. Marius was taking control of the
Roman army in the war against King Jugurtha of Numidia in
northern Africa.
The Jugurthine War had started in earlier 112 BC, but Roman legions under
Quintus Caecilius Metellus had been taking what was seen as an excessive amount of
time. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant and client of Metellus, saw an opportunity to usurp his commander and fed rumors of incompetence
and delay to the publicanii (merchants) in the region. These machinations caused calls for Metellus's removal; despite delaying
tactics by Metellus, Marius returned to Rome to stand for the consulship and took over the campaign.
Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus and ultimately defeated the Numidians in 106 BC,
thanks in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. He had persuaded King Bocchus of Mauretania, a nearby kingdom, to betray Jugurtha, who had fled
to Mauretania for refuge. It was a dangerous operation from the first, with King Bocchus weighing up the advantages of handing
Jugurtha over to Sulla or Sulla over to Jugurtha[5]. The
publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Much to the annoyance of Marius, a gilded equestrian statue of
Sulla donated by King Bocchus was erected in the Forum to commemorate his accomplishment.
Cimbri and the Teutones
The next threat to Rome proved to be much more serious. In 104 BC the migrating Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutones seemed headed for Italy. Sulla continued to serve on
Marius' staff during this campaign. Due to the immediate threat facing the city, Marius was elected Consul an unprecedented 5
years in a row. Finally, with his consular colleague Catulus, the Roman forces faced the tribes at the battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. Sulla had by this time transferred to the army of Quintus Lutatius Catulus Caesar. Sulla is credited as being the prime mover in the defeat of
the tribes (Catulus being a hopeless general and quite incapable of cooperating with Marius). Marius and Catulus were both
granted triumphs as the co-commanding generals.
Praetorship and Cilician governorship
Returning to Rome, Sulla was elected 'Praetor urbanus' in 97 BC. According to rumour, this
was done through massive bribery. The next year he was appointed pro consule to the province of Cilicia (in Anatolia). While in the East, Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and by taking the seat between the Parthian
ambassador and the ambassador from Pontus (the center seat being the place of honour), he sealed,
perhaps unintentionally, the Parthian ambassador's fate. Orobazus was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing Sulla to
outmaneuver him. It was at this meeting he was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the
height of his fame and fortune. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his life. Later around 93 BC Sulla
left the East and returned to Rome, where he aligned himself with the Optimates in
opposition to Gaius Marius. In 92 BC Sulla repulsed Tigranes the Great of
Armenia from Cappadocia.
Social War
The Social War (91–87 BC) was fought against the Socii, Rome's Italian allies, and
resulted from Rome's intransigence in regarding the civil liberties of its own citizens (Romans) as superior to those of citizens
of the rest of Italy. Subjects of the Roman Republic, these Italian provincials might be called to arms in its defence or might
be subjected to extraordinary taxes, but they had no say in the expenditure of these taxes or in the uses of the armies that
might be raised in their territories. The Social War was, in part, caused by the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger. His reforms were intended to grant Roman Citizenship to
their allies, which would have given these "provincials" (a provincial Roman) a say in the external and internal policies of the
Roman Republic. When Drusus was assassinated, most of his reforms addressing these
grievances were declared invalid. This greatly angered the Roman provincials, and in consequence, most allied against Rome.
At the beginning of the Social War, the Roman aristocracy and Senate were beginning to fear Gaius Marius's ambition, which had already given him 5 consulships in a row, from 104 BC to 100 BC. They
were determined that he should not have overall command of the war in Italy. In this last rebellion of the Italian allies, Sulla
served with brilliance as a general. He outshone both Marius and the consul Gnaeus Pompeius
Strabo (the father of Pompey Magnus). For example, in 89 BC Sulla captured
Aeclanum, the chief town of Hirpini, by setting the wooden
breastwork on fire. As a result of his success in bringing the Social War to a successful conclusion, he was elected
consul for the first time in 88 BC, with Quintus Pompeius Rufus
(soon his daughter's father-in-law) as his colleague.
Grass Crown
Sulla served not only with brilliance as a general during the Social War, but also with immense personal bravery. At
Nola he was awarded a Corona Obsidionalis ("Obsidional or Blockade Crown"), also known as a
Corona Graminea ("Grass Crown"), the highest Roman military honor, awarded for
personal bravery to a commanding general that saves a Roman legion or army in the field. Unlike all other Roman military honors,
it was awarded by acclamation of the soldiers of the rescued army, and consequently very few were ever awarded. The crown, by
tradition, was woven from grasses and other plants taken from actual battlefield. [6]
Consul and first march on Rome
- Further information: Sulla's first civil war
As the consul of Rome, Sulla prepared to depart once more for the East, to fight the first Mithridatic War, by the appointment of the Senate. But he would leave trouble behind him.
Marius was now an old man, but he still had the ambition to lead the Roman armies against King Mithridates VI of Pontus. Marius convinced the tribune
Publius Sulpicius Rufus to call an assembly and revert the Senate's decision on Sulla's command. Sulpicius also used the assemblies
to eject Senators from the Roman Senate until there were not enough senators to form a
quorum. Violence in the Forum ensued, and the efforts of the nobles to effect a public lynching similar to that which had
happened to the brothers Gracchi and Saturninus were smashed by the gladitatorial bodyguard of
Sulpicius. Sulla was forced to take refuge in Marius's house, and possibly made a personal plea to stop the violence, which was
ignored. Sulla's own son-in-law was killed in those riots.
Sulla fled Rome and went to the camp of his victorious Social War veterans, waiting to cross to Greece from the south of
Italy. He announced the measures that had been taken against him, and his soldiers stoned the envoys of the assemblies who came
to announce that the command of the Mithridatic War had been transferred to Marius. Sulla then took six of his most loyal
legions and marched on Rome. This was an unprecedented event. No general before him had
ever crossed the city limits, the pomoerium, with his army. It was so unethical that
most of his commanders (with the exception of one, Lucullus) refused to accompany him. Sulla
justified his actions on the grounds that the Senate had been neutered and the mos
maiorum ("The way things were done", which amounted to a Roman constitution though none of it was codified as such)
had been offended by the Senate's negation of the rights of the year's consuls to fight the year's wars. Armed gladiators were
unable to resist organized Roman soldiers; and although Marius offered freedom to any slave that would fight with him against
Sulla, he and his followers were forced to flee the city.
Sulla consolidated his position, declared Marius and his allies hostis, and addressed the Senate in harsh tones,
portraying himself as a victim, presumably to justify his violent entrance into the city. After restructuring the city's politics
and strengthening the Senate's power, Sulla returned to his camp and proceeded with the original plan of fighting Mithridates in
Pontus.
Sulpicius was betrayed and killed by one of his slaves, whom Sulla subsequently freed and then executed. Marius, however, fled
to safety in Africa. With Sulla out of Rome, Marius plotted his return. During his period of exile Marius became determined that
he would hold a seventh consulship, as foretold by the Sybil decades earlier. By the end of 87 BC Marius returned to Rome with
the support of Lucius Cornelius Cinna and, in Sulla's absence, took control of
the city. Marius declared Sulla's reforms and laws invalid and officially exiled Sulla. Marius and Cinna were elected consuls for
the year 86 BC. Marius died a fortnight after, and Cinna was left in sole control of Rome.
First Mithridatic War and the siege of Athens
-
In the spring of 87 BC Sulla landed at Dyrrachium, Greece. Asia was occupied by the forces of Mithridates under the command of Archelaus.
Sulla’s first target was Athens, ruled by a Mithridatic puppet; the tyrant Aristion. Sulla moved southeast, picking up supplies and reinforcements as he went. Sulla’s chief of staff was
Lucullus, who went ahead of him to scout the way and negotiate with Bruttius Sura, the existing Roman commander in Greece. After speaking with Lucullus, Sura handed over the
command of his troops to Sulla. At Chaeronea, ambassadors from all the major cities of Greece (except Athens) met with Sulla, who
impressed on them the Rome's determination to drive Mithridates from Greece and Asia Province. Sulla then advanced on Athens.
On arrival, Sulla threw up a siege encompassing not only Athens but also the port of Piraeus.
At the time Archelaus had command of the sea, so Sulla sent Lucullus to raise a fleet from the remaining Roman allies in the
eastern Mediterranean. His first objective was Piraeus, as without it Athens could not be re-supplied. Huge earthworks were
raised, isolating Athens and its port from the land side. Sulla needed wood, so he cut down everything, including the sacred
groves of Greece, up to 100 miles from Athens. When more money was needed he “borrowed” from temples and Sybils alike. The currency minted from this treasure was to remain in circulation for centuries and prized for its
quality.
Despite the complete encirclement of Athens and its port, and several attempts by Archelaus to raise the siege, a stalemate
seemed to have developed. Sulla, however, patiently bided his time. Soon Sulla's camp was to fill with refugees from Rome,
fleeing the massacres of Marius and Cinna. These also included his wife and children, as well as those of the Optimate party who had not been killed.
Athens by now was starving, and corn was at famine levels in price. Inside the city, the population was reduced to eating shoe
leather and grass. A delegation from Athens was sent to treat with Sulla, but instead of serious negotiations they expounded on
the glory of their city. Sulla sent them away saying: “I was sent to Athens, not to take lessons, but to reduce rebels to
obedience.”
His spies then informed him that Aristion was neglecting the Heptachalcum. Sulla immediately sent sappers to undermine the
wall. Nine hundred feet of wall was brought down between the Sacred and Piraeic gates on the southwest side of the city. A
midnight sack of Athens began, and after the taunts of Aristion, Sulla was not in a mood to be magnanimous. Blood literally
flowed in the streets, it was only after the entreaties of a couple of his Greek friends (Midias and Calliphon) and the pleas of
the Roman Senators in his camp that Sulla decided enough was enough. He then concentrated his forces on the Port of Pireaus and
Archelaus, seeing his hopeless situation, withdrew to the citadel and then abandoned the port to join up with his forces under
the command of Taxiles. Sulla, as yet not having a fleet, was powerless to prevent Archelaus’
escape. Before leaving Athens, he burnt the port to the ground. Sulla then advanced into Boeotia to take on Archelaus's armies
and remove them from Greece.
Battle of Chaeronea
-
Sulla lost no time in moving to intercept the Pontic army and moved to occupy a hill called Philoboetus that branched off Mount Parnassus. It overlooked the
Elatean plain and had plentiful supplies of wood and water. The army of Archelaus, presently
commanded by Taxiles, had to approach from the north and proceed along the valley towards Chaeronea. Over 120,000 strong, it outnumbered Sulla's forces by at least 3 to 1. Archelaus was in favor of a
policy of attrition with the Roman forces, but Taxiles had orders from Mithridates to attack at
once. In the meantime, Sulla got his men digging. Next, Sulla occupied the ruined city of Parapotamii. It was impregnable and commanded the fords on the road to Chaeronea. He then made a move that
looked to Archelaus like a retreat. He abandoned the fords and moved in behind an entrenched palisade. Behind the palisade were the field artillery from the siege of Athens. Archelaus advanced across the
fords and tried to outflank Sulla’s men, only to be hurled back on the Mithridatic right wing, causing even more confusion.
Archelaus’s chariots then charged the Roman center, only to be destroyed on the palisades. Next came the phalanxes: they too
found the palisades impassable, added to the fact that they were receiving withering fire from the Roman field artillery. Next
Archelaus flung his right wing at the Roman left; Sulla, seeing the danger of this maneuver, raced over from the Roman right wing
to help. Sulla stabilized the situation, at which point Archelaus flung in more troops from his right flank. This destabilized
the Pontic army, giving it a slew towards its right flank. Sulla dashed back to his own right wing and ordered the general
advance. The legions, supported by cavalry, dashed forward and Archelaus’ army folded in on itself, like closing a pack of cards.
The slaughter was terrible, and some reports estimate that only 10,000 men of Mithridates' original army survived. Chaeronea was
one of the great battles of history: Sulla had defeated a vastly superior force in terms of numbers; it was also the first
recorded time that battlefield entrenchments were used.
Battle of Orchomenos
-
The government of Rome (i.e., Cinna) then sent out Lucius Valerius Flaccus with an
army to relieve Sulla of command in the east. Flaccus had been given as second in command a certain Gaius Flavius Fimbria, an individual that history records had few virtues. (He was to eventually
agitate against his commanding officer and incite the troops to murder Flaccus). In the meantime, the two Roman armies camped
next to each other; and Sulla, not for the first time, encouraged his soldiers to spread dissension among Flaccus’ army. Many
deserted to Sulla before Flaccus packed up and moved on north to threaten Mithridates’ northern dominions. In the meantime, Sulla
moved to intercept the new Pontic army. He chose the site of the battle to come—Orchomenos. Not only was it a natural place for a
smaller army to meet a much larger one, due to its natural defenses, but it afforded Sulla the ideal terrain to expand on his
innovative use of entrenchment. This time the Pontic army was in excess of 150,000, and it encamped itself in front of the busy
Roman army, next to a large lake. It soon dawned on Archelaus what Sulla was up to. Sulla had not only been digging trenches but
also dykes, and before long he had the Pontic army in deep trouble. Desperate sallies by the Pontic forces were repulsed by the
Romans and the dykes moved onward. On the second day, Archeleus made a determined effort to escape Sulla’s web of dykes—the
entire Pontic army was hurled at the Romans—but the Roman legionaries were pressed together so tightly that their short swords
were like an impenetrable barrier, through which the enemy could not escape. The battle turned into a rout; and once again the
slaughter was on an immense scale. Plutarch notes that two hundred years later, armor and weapons from the battle were still
being found. The battle of Orchomenos was another of the world's decisive battles. It determined that the fate of Asia Minor lay
with Rome and her successors for the next millennium.
Second March on Rome
Determined to regain control of Rome, Sulla returned to Italy. With the support of Metellus Pius and others, Sulla's armies
marched up Italy from the port of Brundisium. He chased the remnants of the Marians, led by
Gaius Marius the Younger, into Praeneste and bottled them up. Shortly
afterwards, following a mad-dash march to Rome, Sulla's army defeated the Samnite forces of Pontius
Telesinus in November, 82 BC, at the Battle of Colline Gate. The
strength of the right wing, commanded by Marcus Licinius Crassus, proved crucial
in securing victory. Sulla also had the aid of the young Pompey, who defeated Gnaeus Papirius
Carbo's supporters in Sicily and Africa.
Dictator of Rome
Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a denarius portrait issued by his grandson
At the beginning of 81 BC, Sulla was appointed dictator, rei publicae constituendae
causa, by the Senate and subsequently ratified by the "Assembly of the People", with no limit on time in office. Sulla had
total control of the city and empire of Rome, except for Spain (which Marius's general Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). This unusual honour (used hitherto only in
times of extreme danger to the city, such as the Second Punic War, and only for 6 month
periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. Sulla can be seen as setting
the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and the eventual end of the Republic under
Augustus.
In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a reign of terror, akin to and in response to, that which
Marius and Cinna had implemented while they were in control during Sulla's absence. Proscribing or outlawing every one of his political opponents, Sulla ordered some 1,500 Roman nobles
(i.e., senators and equites) executed, although it is estimated that as many
as 9,000 people were killed[7]. The bloodbath went on for
several months. Romans were executed for any reason or none at all. Helping or sheltering a person who was proscribed was also
punishable by death. The State confiscated the wealth of the outlawed and then auctioned it off, making Sulla and his supporters
vastly rich. (One option commonly taken by those who had been proscribed was suicide, which under Roman law allowed their
property to be inherited by their families, and not as spoils to Sulla.) The sons and grandsons of the roscribed were banned from
future political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years.
The young Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, was one of Sulla's targets and fled the city. He was saved through the efforts of his
relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life, because
of the young man's notorious ambition. The historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to
spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying "In this
Caesar there are many a Marius."
Only Quintus Sertorius, the last supporter of Marius, held out against Sulla's
armies under Metellus Pius in distant Hispania.
Without any political obstacle, Sulla enacted a series of reforms to put control of the State firmly in the hands of the
Senate. He arranged that the number of senators be doubled from 300 to 600 and that
membership was automatic on election to the office of quaestor instead of at the discretion of
the censors. He also increased the number of quaestors from eight to twenty and the number
of praetors from six to eight, ensuring the numbers in the Senate and giving them a larger base of experienced politicians to
draw from. He regulated the courts and re-passed a law regulating the cursus honorum,
giving specific ages for each magistracy, and forbidding the repetition of any office within ten years. He also reduced the
tribunes' political power by restricting their veto and blocking them from further office, and
limited the Assembly's ability to pass laws without the Senate's approval. This was to
ensure that no man who had real political ambition would run for the tribunate. Sulla remembered the tribunates of the Gracchi
and how they had caused upheaval throughout the Roman world with their radical policies. Now, only second-rate politicians would
want to run for the office of tribune, securing the preeminence of the Senate.
Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, he expanded the "Pomerium", the sacred
boundary of Rome, untouched since the time of the kings. In this act, Sulla was trying to invoke the memory of Servius Tullius,
the last man believed to have performed this ceremony. Servius Tullius had done much to shape the Roman constitution, and Sulla
was comparing himself to this great leader. Many of Sulla's reforms looked to the past (often re-passing former laws), but he
also regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws.
After two years of unchallenged power, Sulla stunned Rome by resigning the Dictatorship. He disbanded his legions and
reëstablished consular government. (In accordance to his own rules, he stood for and was elected consul in 80 BC). He dismissed
his lictors and walked unguarded in the forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. In a manner that the
historian Suetonius thought arrogant[8], Caesar later ridiculed Sulla for resigning, stating "Sulla did not know his political ABCs".
Retirement
After his second consulship, he withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli. From this
distance, he remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were
involved (e.g., The Granius episode).
Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished just before before his death. (They are now lost.) He ended up
surrounded by a troupe of actors and dancers. Amongst them was
Metrobius. In his last address to the Senate, Sulla was keen to acknowledge him as his
lifetime lover, to the dismay of the audience.[citation needed] With this merry company, Sulla died after a brief illness in 78 BC. The
symptoms described in contemporary accounts indicate that the cause of death was liver
failure, brought on by a lifetime of heavy drinking. His funeral was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in 14AD.[9]
Sulla's legacy
Even though Sulla's laws concerning qualification for admittance to the Senate and regulations
of governorships, among others, remained on Rome's statutes for some time, some of his legislation was repealed less than a
decade after his death. The veto power of the tribunes and their
legislating authority were soon reinstated, ironically during the consulships of Pompey and Crassus. However, Sulla's biggest oversight was his
failure to make any provision to limit the power of the army, allowing it to remain under the control of generals such as
himself. While he did pass laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces (laws that remained in effect well into the
imperial period), they did not prevent really determined generals such as Pompey and
Julius Caesar from using their armies for personal ambition. This highlighted the weakness
of the Senate in controlling its most ambitious members.
Sulla is seen to have provided the example that led Caesar to cross the Rubicon, and also provided the precursor of Caesar's
Dictatorship. Cicero comments that Pompey once said "If Sulla could, why can't I?". Sulla's example proved that it could be done,
and therefore inspired others to attempt it; he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall.
Sulla's descendents continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. His son Faustus Cornelius Sulla issued denarii bearing his ancestors' name, as did another grandson, Quintus Pompeius
Rufus. Yet another grandson, Faustus (II) Cornelius Sulla was
Tiberius' legate in Germany and Consul of AD 7, but was executed for attempting to assassinate
Augustus in AD 9. His great-grandson Lucius
Cornelius Sulla Faustus was a friend of Germanicus and appointed consul by Augustus at
age 30 . Augustus's daughter Julia was Sulla's great great
granddaughter via her mother Scribonia, daughter of Sulla's granddaughter Cornelia. The
husband of the emperor Claudius' daughter Claudia
Antonia was Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (consul of 52), whose
father had been consul in 31.
He is the subject of two Italian operas, both of which take considerable liberties with history and change his name to "Lucio
Silla": Lucio Silla by Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart and the little-known Silla by Georg
Friederich Handel. In each he is portrayed as a bloody, womanizing, ruthless tyrant who eventually repents his ways and
steps down from the throne of Rome.
The name "Sulla"
In older sources, his name may be found as Sylla. This is a Hellenism, like sylva for classical Latin
silva, reinforced by the fact that our two major sources, Plutarch and Appian, wrote in Greek, and call him Σύλλα.[10]
Marriages and issue
Chronology
- around 138 BC – born in Rome
- 107 BC – nominated Quaestor to Gaius Marius
- 106 BC – end of Jugurthine War
- 104/103 BC – legatus to Marius in Further Gaul
- 103 BC – legatus to Quintus Lutatius Catulus Caesar in Further
Gaul
- 101 BC – defeats the Cimbrii in the battle of Vercellae
- 94 BC – elected praetor urbanus
- 93 BC – governor of Cilicia
- 91/88 BC – general in the Social War
- 88 BC –
- consulship with Pompeius Rufus
- invades Rome and outlaws Marius
- 87 BC – Command of Roman armies to fight King Mithridates of Pontus
- 86 BC – Sack of Athens, Battle of Chaeronea
- 85 BC – Battle of Orchomenus
- 84 BC – Expulsion of Mithridates' forces from Western Asia Minor & reorganization of Asia province
- 83 BC – Returns to Italy and invades Rome for the second time
- 81 BC – Appointed "Dictator - rei publicae constituendae causa"
- 80 BC – Resigns the dictatorship, elected consul with Metellus Pius
- 79 BC – Retires completely from political life
- 78 BC – Dies of an intestinal ulcer, Funeral held in Rome
External links
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References
- ^ Official name of Sulla. The meaning in English is "Lucius Cornelius Sulla,
son of Lucius, grandson of Publius, the lucky." His agnomen Felix — the fortunate — was attained later in life, as the Latin equivalent of the
Greek nickname he had acquired during his campaigns - επαφροδιτος , epaphroditus,
beloved-of-Aphrodite or (to Romans who read Sulla's Greek title) Venus, due to his skill and luck as a general.
- ^ "because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot
defend himself against wolves."[1].
- ^ Plutarch: Sulla, Sect 36. Gutenberg English Trans: Aubrey Stewart &
George Long. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14114
- ^ Plutarch: Sulla, Sect 2.
- ^ Plutarch: Sulla, Sect 3
- ^ [2].
- ^ Cicero, Anthony Everitt, p.41
- ^ Suetonius, Julius 77. "...No less arrogant were his public utterances, which Titus Ampius records: that the state was nothing, a mere
name without body or form; that Sulla did not know his A. B. C. when he laid down his dictatorship; that men ought now to be more
circumspect in addressing him, and to regard his word as law. So far did he go in his presumption, that when a soothsayer once
reported direful inwards without a heart, he said: "They will be more favourable when I wish it; it should not be regarded as a
portent, if a beast has no heart..."
- ^ His epitaph, written by Sulla himself, has become a common phrase used by
those wishing to portray themselves as powerful. It has recently been popularized by Lieutenant
General James Mattis as the motto of the 1st Marine Division
of the United States Marine Corps: No greater friend, no worse
enemy.
- ^ Buck, Comparative grammar of Greek and Latin; Latin spelling in the
late Republic is variable.
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