Manchukuo

 

(mănchū'kwō) , former country, comprising the three provinces of NE China, traditionally called Manchuria. The Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931 and founded Manchukuo in 1932. Changchun, the capital, was renamed Xinjing [Chinese,=new capital]. Pu Yi, last of the Manchu (Ch'ing) dynasty of China, ruled as regent and emperor. Manchukuo, ostensibly an independent Manchu state, was a Japanese puppet-state. Of the major countries only Japan, Italy, and Germany extended diplomatic recognition; few foreigners were allowed into Manchukuo. The Japanese military kept strict control of the administration and fought a continuing guerrilla war with native resistance groups. To develop Manchukuo as a war base, the Japanese greatly expanded industry and railroads. After World War II, Chinese sovereignty was reasserted over the area.

滿洲國 Mǎnzhōuguó / Manshū-koku State of Manchuria (1932-34) 大滿洲帝國 Dà Mǎnzhōu Dìguó / Dai Manshū Teikoku Empire of Manchuria (1934-45) Puppet state of Empire of Japan ← 1932 – 1945 → Flag Anthem National Anthem of Manchukuo Map of Manchukuo Capital Hsinking Government Constitutional monarchy Emperor  - 1932 - 1934 Datong (Chief Executive) (Aisingioro Puyi)  - 1934 - 1945 Kangde-Emperor (Aisingioro Puyi) Prime Minister  - 1932 - 1935 Zheng Xiaoxu  - 1935 - 1945 Zhang Jinghui Historical era World War II  - Established 1932  - Disestablished 1945

Manchukuo (満州国, lit. "State of Manchuria") was a puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia created by former Qing Dynasty officials with help from Imperial Japan in 1932. The state was founded and administered by Imperial Japan, with Puyi, the last Qing emperor, as the nominal regent and emperor.^[1] Manchukuo's government was abolished in 1945 after the defeat of Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. Despite the name, Manchus were only a minority in Manchukuo, whose largest ethnic group were Han Chinese. There were also Koreans, Japanese, Mongols and smaller minorities. The Mongol regions of western Manchukuo were ruled under a slightly different system in acknowledgement of the Mongolian traditions there.

History

After Manchu tribes conquered China they replaced the Ming Dynasty with the Qing. However, the Manchu emperors did not fully integrate their homeland into China. This legal, and to a degree ethnic, division persisted until the Qing dynasty began to fall apart in the 1800s.

As the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many outlying areas either broke free (like Kashgar) or fell under the control of Imperialist powers. In the 1800s, Imperial Russia was most interested in the northern lands of the Qing Empire. In 1858, Russia gained nominal control over a huge tract of land called Outer Manchuria thanks to the Supplementary Treaty of Beijing that ended the Second Opium War. But Russia was not satisfied, and as the Qing Dynasty continued to weaken, they made further efforts to take control over the rest of Manchuria. Inner Manchuria came under strong Russian influence in the 1890s with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok.

However, as a direct result of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) Japanese influence replaced Russia's in Inner Manchuria. In 1906, Japan laid the South Manchurian Railway to Port Arthur (Japanese: Ryojun). Between World War I and World War II Manchuria became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. Japan moved into Outer Manchuria as a result of the chaos following the Russian Revolution of 1917. A combination of Soviet military successes and American economic pressure forced the Japanese to withdraw from the area, however, and Outer Manchuria returned to Soviet control by 1925.

During the warlord period in China, the warlord Zhang Zuolin established himself in Inner Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later the Japanese Kantogun found him too independent and assassinated him in 1928. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the former Emperor of China, Puyi, was invited to come with his followers and act as the head of state for Manchuria; he accepted this request. On February 18, 1932 the "State of Manchuria" (Manchukuo, Pinyin: Mǎnzhōuguó)^[2] was declared to exist and recognized by Japan. The city of Changchun, renamed Hsinking (Xinjing, 新京), literally means the "New Capital", became the capital of the new entity. Chinese in Manchuria organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state required a war lasting several years to pacify the country.

Manchukuo
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese:	滿洲國
Simplified Chinese:	满洲国
Literal meaning:	State of Manchuria
Transliterations Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: Mǎnzhōuguó - Wade-Giles: Man-chou-kuo Yue (Cantonese) - Jyutping: mun5 zau1 gwok³
Japanese name
Kanji:	滿州國 or 滿洲國
Hiragana:	まんしゅうこく
Transliterations - Revised Hepburn: Manshū-koku - Kunrei-shiki: Mansyû-koku

The Japanese initially installed Puyi as chief executive in 1932, and two years later he was declared Emperor of Manchukuo with the era name of Kangde or "Tranquility and Virtue". Manchukuo thus became the Great Manchurian Empire, sometimes termed Manchutikuo (Pinyin: Mǎnzhōu Dìguó). Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him. Puyi was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. A palace, Wei Huang Gong, was built for the emperor. All of the Manchu ministers served as front-men for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions.

Empire of Manchuria
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese:	大滿洲帝國
Simplified Chinese:	大满洲帝国
Transliterations Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: Dà Mǎnzhōu Dìguó - Wade-Giles: Ta Man-chou Ti-kuo
Japanese name
Kanji:	大滿州帝國 or 大滿洲帝國
Hiragana:	だいまんしゅうていこく
Transliterations - Revised Hepburn: Dai Manshū Teikoku

In this manner Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China in the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. In 2007, an article by Reiji Yoshida in the Japan Times argued that the Japanese investments were partly financed by selling drugs. According to the article, a document found by Yoshida shows that the Kōa-in (Greater East Asia Development Board) was directly implicated in providing funds to drug dealers in China for the benefit of the puppet governments of Manchukuo, Nanjing and Mongolia.^[3] This document corroborates evidence analyzed earlier by the Tokyo tribunal which stated that «Japan's real purpose in engaging drug trafic was far more sinister than even the debauchery of Chinese people. Japan, having signed and ratified the opium conventions, was bound not to engage in drug traffic, but she found in the alleged but false independence of Manchukuo a convenient opportunity to carry on a worldwide drug traffic and cast the guilt upon that puppet state (...) In 1937, it was pointed out in the League of Nations that 90% of all illicit white drugs in the world were of Japanese origin...» ^[4].

Only 23 out of 80 then-existing nations recognised the new state. The League of Nations (via the Lytton Report) declared that Manchuria remained rightfully part of China, leading Japan to resign its membership in 1934. The Manchukuo case prompted the United States to articulate the so-called Stimson Doctrine, under which international recognition was withheld from changes in the international system created by force of arms. Of the major powers Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, Vichy France, Fascist Italy, Francoist Spain and Nazi Germany recognised Manchukuo diplomatically. In addition Manchukuo gained recognition from the Japanese collaborationist government of China under Wang Jingwei, as well as El Salvador and the Dominican Republic. Although the Chinese government did not recognise Manchukuo, the two countries established official ties for trade, communications and transportation.

Dates of recognition of Manchukuo by other states^{[citation needed]} (up to 1941) were as follows: Japan, 16 Sept 1932; El Salvador, 3 Mar 1934; Vatican, 18 Apr 1934 (de facto); Italy, 29 Nov. 1937; Spain, 2 Dec 1937; Germany, 12 May 1938; Poland, 19 Oct 1939 (de facto); Hungary, 9 Jan 1939; Slovakia, 1 June 1940 (puppet state of Nazi Germany which was recognized by Manchukuo on this date); ‘New’ China, 30 Nov. 1940 (date of pact); Rumania, 1 Dec 1940; Bulgaria, 10 May 1941; Finland, 18 July 1941; Croatia, 2 Aug 1941 (puppet state of Nazi Germany which was recognized by Manchukuo on this date); and Thailand, 5 Aug 1941.

Prior to World War II, the Japanese colonised Manchukuo and used it as a base from which to invade China. In the summer of 1939 a border dispute between Manchukuo and Mongolia resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, when a combined Soviet-Mongolian force defeated the Japanese Kantogun.

On August 8, 1945 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference, and invaded Manchukuo from outer Manchuria. This was called Operation August Storm. During the Soviet offensive the Army of Manchukuo, theoretically a two hundred-thousand-man force, well armed and trained along Japanese lines, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Emperor Kang De had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the communist government in China, where the authorities had him imprisoned as a war criminal along with all other captured Manchukuo officials.

From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria (Inner Manchuria) served as a base area for the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang (KMT). With Soviet encouragement, the Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantogun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Manchukuo

See also: Salt Rates Palace, National symbols of Manchukuo, and Imperial Japanese colonialism in Manchukuo

Historians generally consider Manchukuo a puppet state or colony of Imperial Japan^[5] because of the Japanese military's strong presence and strict control of the government administration, in addition to Japan's wartime atrocities on the local population in Manchukuo. Chinese historians generally refer to the state as 'Wei Manzhouguo' ('false Manchukuo') to emphasise its alleged lack of legitimacy. Japan also expanded the industry and transportation system of Manchukuo to further develop it into a war base for military campaigns against China. In addition, some historians see Manchukuo as an effort at building an ideal Japanese state in Asia that failed due to the pressures of war.^[6]

Administrative division of Manchukuo

See List of administrative divisions of Manchukuo for a complete list of prefecture-level divisions.

During its short-lived existence, Manchukuo was divided into between five (in 1932) and 19 (in 1941) provinces, one special ward of Peiman (Japanese:北満特別区) and two Special cities which were Hsinking (Japanese : 新京特別市) and Harbin (Japanese : 哈爾浜特別市). Each province was divided into between four (Hsingan-tung) and 24 (Fengtien) prefectures. Peiman lasted less than 3 years (July 1 1933 - January 1 1936) and Harbin was later incorporated into Binkiang province. Lungkiang also existed as a province in the 1932 before being divided into Heiho, Lungkiang and Sankiang in 1934. Antung and Chinchow provinces separated themselves from Fengtien while Binkiang and Chientao from Kirin separated themselves in the same year.

Year
1932	1934	1937	1939	1941	1943
Lungkiang 龍江省	Heiho Kokuga 黒河省	Heiho Kokuga 黒河省	Heiho Kokuga 黒河省	Heiho Kokuga 黒河省	Heiho Kokuga 黒河省
	Sankiang Sanko 三江省	Sankiang Sanko 三江省	Sankiang Sanko 三江省	Sankiang Sanko 三江省	Sankiang Sanko 三江省
	Lungkiang Ryuko 龍江省	Lungkiang Ryuko 龍江省	Lungkiang Ryuko 龍江省	Lungkiang Ryuko 龍江省	Lungkiang Ryuko 龍江省
			Peian Hokuan 北安省	Peian Hokuan 北安省	Peian Hokuan 北安省
Kirin 吉林省	Binkiang Hinko 濱江省	Binkiang Hinko 濱江省
			Binkiang Hinko 濱江省	Binkiang Hinko 濱江省	Binkiang Hinko 濱江省
		Mudankiang Botanko 牡丹江省	Mudankiang Botanko 牡丹江省	Mudankiang Botanko 牡丹江省	東満総省
			Tungan Toan 東安省	Tungan Toan 東安省
	Chientao Kanto Gando 間島省	Chientao Kanto Gando 間島省	Chientao Kanto Gando 間島省	Chientao Kanto Gando 間島省
	Kirin Kirin 吉林省	Kirin Kirin 吉林省	Kirin Kirin 吉林省	Kirin Kirin 吉林省	Kirin Kirin 吉林省
Fengtien 奉天省	Antung Anto 安東省	Antung Anto 安東省	Antung Anto 安東省	Antung Anto 安東省	Antung Anto 安東省
			Tunghua Tsuka 通化省	Tunghua Tsuka 通化省	Tunghua Tsuka 通化省
	Fengtien Hoten 奉天省	Fengtien Hoten 奉天省	Fengtien Hoten 奉天省	Fengtien Hoten 奉天省	Fengtien Hoten 奉天省
				Siping Shihei 四平省	Siping Shihei 四平省
	Chinchow Kinshu 錦州省	Chinchow Kinshu 錦州省	Chinchow Kinshu 錦州省	Chinchow Kinshu 錦州省	Chinchow Kinshu 錦州省
Hsingan Koan 興安省	Hsingan 興安省	Hsingan Koan 興安省	Hsingan-pei Koan-Kita 興安北省	Hsingan-pei Koan-Kita 興安北省	興安総省
			Hsingan-tung Koan-higashi 興安東省	Hsingan-tung Koan-higashi 興安東省
			Hsingan-nan Koan-minami 興安南省	Hsingan-nan Koan-minami 興安南省
			Hsingan-si Koan-nishi 興安西省	Hsingan-si Koan-nishi 興安西省
Jehol Netsuka 熱河省	Jehol Netsuka 熱河省	Jehole Netsuka 熱河省	Jehol Netsuka 熱河省	Jehol Netsuka 熱河省	Jehol Netsuka 熱河省
Hsinking Shinkyō 新京特別市	Hsinking Shinkyō 新京特別市	Hsinking Shinkyō 新京特別市	Hsinking Shinkyō 新京特別市	Hsinking Shinkyō 新京特別市	Hsinking Shinkyō 新京特別市

Demographics

In 1908 the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000.

In early 1934 the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese, 590,760 Japanese, 680,000 Koreans, and 98,431 other nationalities (Russians, Mongols, etc). Around 80% of the population was rural. Other statistics indicate that in Manchukuo the population rose by 18,000,000.

From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Lungkiang, Jehol, Kirin, Liaoning (Fengtien) and Hsingan provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period evaluated the total population as 36,933,000 residents.

Around the same time the Soviet Union was promoting the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials promoted the Fugu Plan to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation efforts. The Japanese wanted to exploit the Jews' innate capability to generate wealth, or so they believed from naive readings of anti-Semitic propaganda.

Financing of the settlement was expected to come from rich Jews, but the German government preferred the Final Solution. In any case, Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union made such population transfer impossible, since the Axis powers did not control the necessary sea lanes.

Population of main cities

• Yingkow or Yingkou or Newchwang (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940)
• Mukden or Shenyang (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940)
• Hsinking or Changchung (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940)
• Harbin (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940)
• Dairen or Dalian (400,000 or 555,562 in 1939)
• Antung or Dandong (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940)
• Kirin or Jilin (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940)
• Tsitsihar or Qiqihar (75,000 in 1940)

Japanese population

In 1931–2 there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 inhabitants of Japanese nationality. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Hsinking they made up 25% of the population. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a contingent of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea, this migration stopped.

When the Red Army invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946–7. Many Japanese orphans in China were left behind in the confusion by then Japanese government and were adopted by Chinese families. Some of them were stigmatized as Japanese during the Cultural Revolution, and in the 1980s Japan began to organise a repatriation programme for them.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Manchukuo

Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. Its industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production surpassed Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernised during Manchukuo era.

See also:

• Central Bank of Manchou
• Manchukuo yuan
• Manshukoku Hikoki Seizo KK
• Manshukoku Koku KK
• Showa Steel Works

Slave labor and mass graves

According to a joint study of historians Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyochi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the Showa period army for slave work in Manchukuo under the supervision of the Koa-in. ^[7]

The Chinese slave laborers often suffered illness due to high-intensity toil works. Some badly ill workers were directly pushed into Mass graves in order to avoid the medical expenditure ^[8]and the world most serious mine disaster Benxihu Colliery happened in Manchukuo.

Bacteriological weapons experiments

Bacteriological weapons were experimented on humans by the infamous unit 731 located near Harbin in Beinyinhe from 1932 to 1936 and to Pingfan until 1945. Victims, mostly Chinese, Russians and Koreans, were subjected to vivisection, sometimes without anesthesia.

Transport

Manchukuo built an efficient and massive railway system that still functions well today.

Military

• Manchukuo Imperial Army
• Manchukuo Imperial Guards
• Manchukuo Imperial Navy Forces
• Manshukoku Hombu (Manchu Air Force)
• List of weapons of the Manchukuo Imperial forces
• List of Japanese and Manchu secret agents (Manchukuo)

Education

Manchukuo developed an efficient public education system. They set up or founded many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. There were 1,600 private schools (with Japanese permits), 150 missionary schools and in Harbin 25 Russian schools.

Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rural areas, student were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on adherence to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. The regime used numerous festivals, sport events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens^[9]. Eventually, Japanese became the official language in addition to the Chinese language taught in Manchukuo schools.

Stamps and postal history

Manchukuo issued its first postage stamps on July 28, 1932. A number of denominations existed, with two designs: the pagoda at Liaoyang and a portrait of Puyi. Originally the inscription read (in Chinese) "Manchu State Postal Administration"; in 1934, a new issue read "Manchu Empire Postal Administration". An orchid crest design appeared in 1935, and a design featuring the Sacred White Mountains in 1936.

1936 also saw a new regular series featuring various scenes and surmounted by the orchid crest. Between 1937 and 1945, the government issued a variety of commemoratives: for anniversaries of its own existence, to note the passing of new laws, and to honor Japan in various ways, for instance, on the 2600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire in 1940. The last issue of Manchukuo came on May 2, 1945, commemorating the 10th anniversary of an edict.

After the dissolution of the government, successor postal authorities locally handstamped many of the remaining stamp stocks with "Republic of China" in Chinese and so forth. In addition, the Port Arthur and Dairen Postal Administration overprinted many Manchukuo stamps between 1946 and 1949.

See also: List of birds on stamps of Manchukuo

Manchukuo 1932–1945

Personal Names	Period of Reigns	era names (年號) and their corresponding range of years
All given names in bold.
Aixinjuelo Puyi 愛新覺羅溥儀 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 pu3 yi2	March 1932–August 1945	Datong (大同 da4 tong2) 1932 Kangde (康德 kang1 de2) 1934

References

1. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica article on Manchukuo
2. ^ Between World Wars
3. ^ Japan profited as opium dealer wartime China, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070830f1.html
4. ^ http://www.ibiblio.net/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-5.html
5. ^ Columbia Encyclopedia article on Manchukuo
6. ^ The Journal of Japanese Studies
7. ^ Zhifen Ju, Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the Pacific war, 2002.
8. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=yEA5EJyy4CYC&pg=PT25&ots=wnzSo8hEse&dq=%22mass+grave%22+Liaoning&sig=POFcnbEp_C6Ydn-SiEbXHb4YCP4
9. ^ Japan Focus.

See also

• Battle of Khalkhin Gol
• Battle of Lake Khasan
• Collaborationist Chinese Army
• Evacuation of Manchukuo
• Japanese strategic planning for mainland Asia (1905-1940)
• Kempeitai Political Department and Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory
• List of East Asian leaders in the Japanese sphere of influence (1931-1945)
• List of Japanese supporters of the WWII period
• Marco Polo Bridge Incident
• Mukden Incident
• Nomonhan
• Operation August Storm
• Projected White Russian state in Outer Manchuria
• Transport in Manchukuo
• War crimes in Manchukuo

External links

• The Official Website of Manchukou Temporary Government
• Manchukuo Imperial Army
• Manchu Money Museum
• Education in Mongolia and Manchukuo
• Museum of Manchukuo
• Ministry of Financial Affairs
• Map of Manchukuo

Imperial Japanese Army special research units
Unit 100 (Shenyang) | Unit 516 (Qiqihar) | Unit 543 (Hailar) | Unit 731 (Pingfang) / Unit 200 (Manchuria) / Unit 8604 or Nami Unit (Guangzhou) | Unit 773 (Songo) | Unit Ei 1644 (Nanjing) | Unit 1855 (Nanjing) | Unit 2646 or Unit 80 (Hailar) | Unit 9420 or Oka Unit (Singapore)

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