Massive parallel sequencing

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Massive parallel sequencing encompasses several high-throughput approaches to DNA sequencing; it is also called next-generation sequencing (NGS) or second-generation sequencing. Some of these technologies emerged in late 1996 ^[1][2] and became commercially available since 2005. These technologies use miniaturized and parallelized platforms for sequencing of 1–100 million of short reads (50-400 bases).

Many NGS platforms differ in engineering configurations and sequencing chemistry. They share the technical paradigm of massive parallel sequencing via spatially separated, clonally amplified DNA templates or single DNA molecules in a flow cell. This design is very different from that of Sanger sequencing—also known as capillary sequencing or first-generation sequencing—that is based on electrophoretic separation of chain-termination products produced in individual sequencing reactions.^[3]

NGS Platforms

DNA sequencing with commercially available NGS platforms is generally conducted with the following steps. First, DNA sequencing libraries are generated by clonal amplification by PCR in vitro. Second, the DNA is sequenced by synthesis, such that the DNA sequence is determined by the addition of nucleotides to the complementary strand rather through chain-termination chemistry. Third, the spatially segregated, amplified DNA templates are sequenced simultaneously in a massively parallel fashion without the requirement for a physical separation step. While these steps are followed in most NGS platforms, each utilizes a different strategy.^[4]

NGS parallelization of the sequencing reactions generates hundreds of megabases to gigabases of nucleotide sequence reads in a single instrument run. This has enabled a drastic increase in available sequence data and fundamentally changed genome sequencing approaches in the biomedical sciences.^[5] Newly emerging NGS technologies and instruments have further contributed to a significant decrease in the cost of sequencing nearing the mark of $1000 per genome sequencing.^[6][7]

As of 2012, five massively parallel sequencing platforms are commercially available and their features are summarized in the table. As the pace of NGS technologies is advancing rapidly, technical specifications and pricing are in flux.

An Illumina HiSeq 2000 sequencing machine

Run times* and gigabase (Gb) output † per run for single-end sequencing are denoted by a double asterisk and a single dagger, respectively.

Run times and outputs approximately double when performing paired-end sequencing.

‡Average read lengths for the Roche 454 and Helicos Biosciences platforms.^[8]

Template preparation methods

Two methods are used in preparing templates for NGS reactions: amplified templates originating from single DNA molecules, and single DNA molecule templates. Since most imaging systems cannot detect single fluorescence events, amplification of DNA templates is required. The two most common amplification methods are emulsion PCR (emPCR) and solid-phase amplification.

Emulsion PCR

In emulsion PCR methods, a DNA library is first generated through random fragmentation of genomic DNA. Single-stranded DNA fragments (templates) are attached to the surface of beads with adaptors or linkers, and one bead is attached to a single DNA fragment from the DNA library. The surface of the beads contains oligonucleotide probes with sequences that are complementary to the adaptors binding the DNA fragments. The beads are then compartmentalized into water-oil emulsion droplets. In the aqueous water-oil emulsion, each of the droplets capturing one bead is a PCR microreactor that produces amplified copies of the single DNA template.^[9][10]

Bridge amplification

Forward and reverse primers are covalently attached at high-density to the slide in a flow cell. The ratio of the primers to the template on the support defines the surface density of the amplified clusters. The flow cell is exposed to reagents for polymerase-based extension, and priming occurs as the free/distal end of a ligated fragment "bridges" to a complementary oligo on the surface. Repeated denaturation and extension results in localized amplification of DNA fragments in millions of separate locations across the flow cell surface. Solid-phase amplification produces 100–200 million spatially separated template clusters, providing free ends to which a universal sequencing primer is then hybridized to initiate the sequencing reaction. ^[11][12]

Single-molecule templates

Protocols requiring DNA amplification are often cumbersome to implement and may introduce sequencing errors. The preparation of single-molecule templates is more straightforward and does not require PCR, which can introduce errors in the amplified templates. AT-rich and GC-rich target sequences often show amplification bias, which results in their underrepresentation in genome alignments and assemblies. Single molecule templates are usually immobilized on solid supports using one of at least three different approaches. In the first approach, spatially distributed individual primer molecules are covalently attached to the solid support. The template, which is prepared by randomly fragmenting the starting material into small sizes (for example,~200–250 bp) and adding common adapters to the fragment ends, is then hybridized to the immobilized primer. In the second approach, spatially distributed single-molecule templates are covalently attached to the solid support by priming and extending single-stranded, single-molecule templates from immobilized primers. A common primer is then hybridized to the template. In either approach, DNA polymerase can bind to the immobilized primed template configuration to initiate the NGS reaction. Both of the above approaches are used by Helicos BioSciences. In a third approach, spatially distributed single polymerase molecules are attached to the solid support, to which a primed template molecule is bound. This approach is used by Pacific Biosciences. Larger DNA molecules (up to tens of thousands of base pairs) can be used with this technique and, unlike the first two approaches, the third approach can be used with real-time methods, resulting in potentially longer read lengths.

Sequencing Approaches for NGS Technologies

Pyrosequencing

Pyrosequencing is a non-electrophoretic, bioluminescence method that measures the release of inorganic pyrophosphate by proportionally converting it into visible light using a series of enzymatic reactions. Unlike other sequencing approaches that use modified nucleotides to terminate DNA synthesis, the pyrosequencing method manipulates DNA polymerase by the single addition of a dNTP in limiting amounts. Upon incorporation of the complementary dNTP, DNA polymerase extends the primer and pauses. DNA synthesis is reinitiated following the addition of the next complementary dNTP in the dispensing cycle. The order and intensity of the light peaks are recorded as flowgrams, which reveal the underlying DNA sequence. ^{[13] [14]}

Sequencing by reversible terminator chemistry

This approach uses reversible terminator-bound dNTPs in a cyclic method that comprises nucleotide incorporation, fluorescence imaging and cleavage. A fluorescently-labeled terminator is imaged as each dNTP is added and then cleaved to allow incorporation of the next base. These nucleotides are chemically blocked such that each incorporation is a unique event. An imaging step follows each base incorporation step, then the blocked group is chemically removed to prepare each strand for the next incorporation by DNA polymerase. This series of steps continues for a specific number of cycles, as determined by user-defined instrument settings. Sequencing by reversible terminator chemistry can be a four-colour cycle such as used by Illumina/Solexa, or a one-colour cycle such as used by Helicos BioSciences. Helicos BioSciences uses a “virtual Terminators”, which are unblocked terminators with a second nucleoside analogue that acts as an inhibitor. This terminators have the approoriate modifications for terminating or inhibiting groups so that DNA synthesis is terminated after a single base addition.^[15][16][17]

Sequencing-by-ligation mediated by ligase enzymes

In this approach, the sequence extension reaction is not carried out by polymerases but rather by DNA ligase and either one-base-encoded probes or two-base-encoded probes. In its simplest form, a fluorescently labelled probe hybridizes to its complementary sequence adjacent to the primed template. DNA ligase is then added to join the dye-labelled probe to the primer. Non-ligated probes are washed away, followed by fluorescence imaging to determine the identity of the ligated probe. The cycle can be repeated either by using cleavable probes to remove the fluorescent dye and regenerate a 5′-PO4 group for subsequent ligation cycles or by removing and hybridizing a new primer to the template. ^[18]

Phospholinked Fluorescent Nucleotides or Real-time sequencing

Pacific Biosciences is currently leading this method. The method of real-time sequencing involves imaging the continuous incorporation of dye-labelled nucleotides during DNA synthesis: single DNA polymerase molecules are attached to the bottom surface of individual zero-mode waveguide detectors (Zmw detectors) that can obtain sequence information while phospholinked nucleotides are being incorporated into the growing primer strand. Pacific Biosciences uses a uniqe DNA polymerase who better incorporates phospholinked nucleotides and enables the resequencing of closed circular templates. Currently this method needs more improvement because of high errors rate consisting of deletions, insertions and mismatches.^[19]

References