On this page
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
Mencius |
For more information on Mencius, visit Britannica.com.
|
Featured Videos:
|
Gale Encyclopedia of Biography:
Mencius |
Mencius (ca. 371-ca. 289 B.C.) was a Chinese philosopher and one of the most important early Confucian thinkers. His philosophy is characterized by its idealism and the assertion that man's nature is basically good.
Confucius, the great Chinese teacher and thinker, died in 479 B.C., and on the eastern seaboard of China his disciples established schools which carried on the teachings of the master. By the end of the 4th century a number of important Confucian philosophers emerged, and the most brilliant of these philosophers was Mencius. Mencius elaborated on and refined many of the ideas of Confucius, and his interpretations became as influential in the Chinese tradition as the ideas of the master himself.
Mencius, which is the Latinized form of Meng-tzu (Master Meng), was born in Tsou, a small state south of Lu, the home state of Confucius. Lu lay in what is now the southern part of Shantung Province and had been an important political and cultural center for much of the Chou dynasty (1122-256 B.C.). Mencius's full name was Meng K'o, and he was the descendant of the Meng, or Meng-sun, clan, one of the three ruling families in Lu.
Almost nothing is known about his early life. Like Confucius, Mencius apparently lost his father at an early age, and he was raised by his mother, who did not remarry. There are several amusing but apocryphal stories about his mother and Mencius's childhood, and these are the only pieces of information about his early life.
Mencius may have studied in one of the Confucian schools established in the Lu area, perhaps the school created by Confucius's grandson Tzu-ssu. Mencius was trained as a scholar and teacher and received instruction in the standard Confucian texts such as the Book of Odes (Shih ching) and the Book of Documents (Shu ching).
Political Career
Mencius seems to have established a reputation in Tsou as a teacher, but nothing is recorded of his activities until his arrival in Ch'i, north of Lu, and one of the most powerful states of that period. Mencius must have arrived in Ch'i during the reign of King Wei (357-320 B.C.), perhaps as early as 335. We do not know if Mencius held any position in the Ch'i government at this time or even how long he remained in Ch'i.
Mencius left Ch'i about 324 and traveled south through the states of Sung and Hsüeh, where he received travel funds from the rulers of these states, finally arriving in his home state of Tsou. At once he was invited to serve as an adviser at the court of Duke Wen of T'eng, a small state south of Tsou. Mencius went to T'eng, where he advised the duke on mourning ritual for his recently deceased father. He also held several long discussions on statecraft with Duke Wen, who was greatly impressed by Mencius's learning.
Mencius did not remain long in T'eng and most likely was forced to leave because he had incurred the animosity of some of the duke's advisers, who resented the stranger's influence. Mencius then went to Liang, the capital of Wei, a state to the west of Ch'i and Sung. He was well received by the aged King Hui, with whom he had several satisfying interviews. Mencius had a less amiable relationship with Hui's successor, Hsiang, who became king in 319, and Mencius decided to return to Ch'i.
The previous year King Wei of Ch'i had died and was succeeded by his son, King Hsüan (reigned 319-310 B.C.). King Hsüan was an extremely ambitious and energetic ruler who hoped to make Ch'i the leader of the entire Chinese state system. In order to enhance Ch'i's prestige the Ch'i rulers had built in the Ch'i capital an academy called Chihsia, where scholars from all parts of China were invited to study and exchange ideas. Members of the academy included some of the most important thinkers of the time. It is not certain whether Mencius was an actual participant at the Chi-hsia discussions, although he certainly must have been acquainted with many of the scholars who were there. Mencius was given an honorary position in the Ch'i government but does not seem to have held a policy-making post.
Mencius was rather stuffy, terribly serious, and somewhat of a prude. To him principle was of paramount importance. Unlike King Hsüan, who was primarily interested in practical matters of government, Mencius was willing to discuss only theoretical matters. On one occasion King Hsüan asked Mencius about early Chinese rulers who had established hegemony over other Chinese states, expressing a wish to emulate them. Mencius arrogantly answered that the Confucian school had never professed interest in the hegemons, and thus he had nothing to say on the matter. He then proceeded to give a long, abstract discourse on what he termed true kingship, citing examples from remote antiquity to illustrate his argument.
Mencius's career in Ch'i was temporarily interrupted by the death of his mother. He returned to Lu, where he conducted an elaborate funeral for her and observed mourning for the prescribed period of 3 years.
In 315 Ch'i attacked the state of Yen in the northeast. Before sending out his expedition King Hsüan asked Mencius for advice. Mencius, not wishing to commit himself, gave an evasive answer which the King construed as approval. Actually, Mencius had reservations about this course of action and was disturbed that the King failed to understand his advice. In 312 Yen expelled the Ch'i army. Out of disgust with Ch'i's policies and irritated that King Hsüan so seldom consulted him, Mencius resolved to leave for his home.
Mencius remained in Tsou for the rest of his life. He was joined by a few loyal disciples, and they continued their study of the Confucian texts. The date of his death is uncertain, but it is traditionally given as 289 B.C. Some scholars think that he died as early as 305.
Mencius's Teachings
Mencius's teachings have been preserved in a book titled Meng-tzu, a seven-chapter work of anecdotes most likely collected by his disciples. Most of the anecdotes consist of conversations between Mencius and his disciples or, occasionally, a ruler. His basic philosophy, if it can be called that, is an extreme idealism which views human nature as basically good and evil as only an obfuscation of one's innate goodness. He placed great emphasis on the necessity for one to try to recover his original goodness and, through learning, to seek what he called the "lost mind" of benevolence. Mencius also believed that if the government fails to maintain benevolent rule and abuses the people, they have a right to revolt.
Further Reading
There are two acceptable English translations of the Meng-tzu: one by James Legge in his The Chinese Classics (5 vols. in 8, 1861-1872; 2d ed. rev. 1865-1895) and the other by W. A. Dobson in Mencius (1963). Both of these works contain valuable biographical information on Mencius. Also worth reading is I. A. Richards, Mencius on the Mind (1932).
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy:
Mencius |
(371-289 BC) (westernization of Meng Tzu). The greatest Confucian, Mencius was born in Shantung, and studied under the grandson of Confucius, Tzu Ssu. Like Confucius he travelled extensively, vainly trying to persuade rulers to improve their ways, before retiring to write the seven books that make up The Book of Mencius. He added to Confucianism the doctrine of the original goodness of human beings, so that the end of learning is to seek the lost state of virtue. The way of righteousness is opposed to utilitarian considerations of advantage and profit. Politically one consequence is that since goodness is inherent in people, they have the right to partake in government and to revolt against bad government.
Columbia Encyclopedia:
Mengzi |
Columbia Encyclopedia:
Mencius |
Bibliography
See A. F. Verwilghen, Mencius: The Man and His Ideas (1967); F. C. Wei, The Political Principles of Mencius (1977).
Quotes By:
Mencius (Mengzi Meng-tse) |
Quotes:
"Friendship is one mind in two bodies."
"A Great man is he who does not lose his childlike heart."
"Charity is in the heart of man, and righteousness in the path of men. Pity the man who has lost his path and does not follow it and who has lost his heart and does not know how to recover it. When people's dogs and chicks are lost they go out and look for them and yet the people who have lost their hearts do not go out and look for them. The principle of self-cultivation consists in nothing but trying to look for the lost heart."
"Kindly words do not enter so deeply into men as a reputation for kindness."
"There is no greater delight than to be conscious of sincerity on self-examination."
"Truth uttered before its time is dangerous."
See more famous quotes by
Mencius (Mengzi Meng-tse)
Wikipedia on Answers.com:
Mencius |
 Mencius, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner |
|
| Full name | Mencius 孟子 |
|---|---|
| Born | 372 BC |
| Died | 289 BC (aged 83) |
| Era | Ancient philosophy |
| Region | Chinese philosophy |
| School | Confucianism |
| Main interests | Ethics, Social philosophy, Political philosophy |
| Notable ideas | Confucianism |
|
Influenced by
|
|
|
Influenced
|
|
| Ancestral name (姓): | Ji (Chinese: 姬; Pinyin: Jī) |
| Clan name (氏): | Meng (Ch: 孟; Py: Mèng)[1] |
| Given name (名): | Ke (Ch: 軻; Py: Kē) |
| Courtesy name (字): | Unknown[2] |
| Posthumous name (謚): | Master Meng the Second Sage[3] (Ch: 亞聖孟子; Py: Yàshèng Mèngzǐ) |
| Styled: | Master Meng[4] (Ch: 孟子; Py: Mèngzǐ) |
Mencius (Chinese: 孟子; pinyin: Mèng Zǐ; Wade–Giles: Meng Tzu; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄇㄥˋ ㄗˇ, most accepted dates: 372 – 289 BCE; other possible dates: 385 – 303/302 BCE) was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.
|
Contents
|
Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng (originally Zouxian), Shandong province, only thirty kilometres (eighteen miles) south of Qufu, Confucius' birthplace.
He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius' grandson, Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform.[5] During the Warring States Period (403–221 BCE), Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi (1046 BCE to 221 BCE) from 319 to 312 BCE. He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life.
Mencius is buried in the "Mencius Cemetery" (孟子林, Mengzi Lin, also known as 亚圣林, Yasheng Lin), which is located 12 km to the northeast of Zoucheng's central urban area. A stele carried by a giant stone tortoise and crowned with dragons stands in front of his grave.[6]
Mencius' mother is often held up as an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. One of the most famous traditional Chinese four-character idioms is 孟母三遷 (mèng mǔ sān qiān; literal translation: "Mencius' mother, three moves").
This saying refers to the legend that Mencius' mother moved house three times before finding a location that she felt was suitable for the child's upbringing. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the proper environment for raising children.
Mencius's father died when he was very young. His mother Zhang (仉) raised her son alone. They were very poor. At first they lived by a cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions. Therefore the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town. There the boy began to imitate the cries of merchants (merchants were despised in early China). So the mother moved to a house next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study. His mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar.
Another story further illustrates the emphasis that Mencius' mother placed on her son's education. As the story goes, once when Mencius was young, he was truant from school. His mother responded to his apparent disregard for his education by taking up a pair of scissors and cutting the cloth she had been weaving in front of him. This was intended to illustrate that one cannot stop a task midway, and her example inspired Mencius to diligence in his studies.
She is one of 125 women of which biographies have been included in the Lienü zhuan, written by Liu Xiang.
One of Mencius's direct descendants was Dr. Meng Chih, former director of China House, and director of the China Institute in 1944. Time magazine reported Dr. Meng's age that year as 44. North Carolina's Davidson College and Columbia University were his alma mater. He was attending a speech along with Confucius descendant H. H. Kung.[7]
Mencius' interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially by the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty. Mencius' disciples included a large number of feudal lords, and he was actually more influential than Confucius had been.[8] The Mencius (also spelled Mengzi or Meng-tzu), a book of his conversations with kings of the time, is one of the Four Books that Zhu Xi grouped as the core of orthodox Neo-Confucian thought. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues, including arguments, with extensive prose.
While Confucius himself did not explicitly focus on the subject of human nature, Mencius asserted the innate goodness of the individual, believing that it was society's influence – its lack of a positive cultivating influence – that caused bad moral character. "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature"[9] and "the way of learning is none other than finding the lost mind".[10]
His translator James Legge finds a close similarity between Mencius' views on human nature and those in Bishop Butler's Sermons on Human Nature.
To show innate goodness, Mencius used the example of a child falling down a well. Witnesses of this event immediately feel
| “ | alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child's parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]...
The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right or wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings, but saying that they cannot develop them is to destroy themselves.[11] |
” |
Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such as Xunzi who thought people were innately bad, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation, they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop, or they could fail. In this way Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good to begin with. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence, otherwise known as Ren.
According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books" (尽信书，则不如无书, from 孟子.尽心下). One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.[citation needed]
Mencius also believed in the power of Destiny in shaping the roles of human beings in society. What is destined cannot be contrived by the human intellect or foreseen. Destiny is shown when a path arises that is both unforeseen and constructive. Destiny should not be confused with Fate. Mencius denied that Heaven would protect a person regardless of his actions, saying, "One who understands Destiny will not stand beneath a tottering wall". The proper path is one which is natural and unforced. This path must also be maintained because, "Unused pathways are covered with weeds." One who follows Destiny will live a long and successful life. One who rebels against Destiny will die before his time.
Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler. Speaking of the overthrow of the wicked King Zhou of Shang, Mencius said, "I have merely heard of killing a villain Zhou, but I have not heard of murdering [him as] the ruler."[12]
This saying should not be taken as an instigation to violence against authorities but as an application of Confucian philosophy to society. Confucianism requires a clarification of what may be reasonably expected in any given relationship. All relationships should be beneficial, but each has its own principle or inner logic. A Ruler must justify his position by acting benevolently before he can expect reciprocation from the people. In this view, a King is like a steward. Although Confucius admired Kings of great accomplishment, Mencius is clarifying the proper hierarchy of human society. Although a King has presumably higher status than a commoner, he is actually subordinate to the masses of people and the resources of society. Otherwise, there would be an implied disregard of the potential of human society heading into the future. One is significant only for what one gives, not for what one takes.
His alleged years make him contemporary with Xun Zi, Zhuangzi, Gaozi, and Plato.
Xun Zi was a Confucian who believed that human nature is originally bad, and the purpose of moral cultivation is to develop our nature into goodness. Obviously, Mencius was at odds with him. Zhu Xi declared his views to be unorthodox, supporting Mencius' stance that human nature is inherently good.
Mencius' argument that unjust rulers may be overthrown is reminiscent of Socrates' argument in Book I of Plato's Republic.
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mencius |
This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
 | Mengzi |
| Mengzi |
| Mengzi County |
Copyrights:
 |
 | Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. © 1994-2012 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Gale Encyclopedia of Biography. Gale Encyclopedia of Biography. © 2006 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Copyright © 1994, 1996, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/. Read more |
|
| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/. Read more |
 |
| Quotes By. Copyright © 2008 QuotationsBook.com. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Wikipedia on Answers.com. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article Mencius. Read more |
