midshipman

A midshipman is an officer cadet, or a commissioned officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonweath countries which use the rank include Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Kenya. The rank was also used, prior to 1968, by the Royal Canadian Navy, but it was replaced with that of naval cadet with the creation of the Canadian Forces.

The word derives from the area aboard a ship, amidships, either where the original rating worked on the ship, or where they were berthed. At the height of the Age of Sail, during the Napoleonic era (1793–1815), a British Royal Navy midshipman was an apprentice officer who had previously served at least three years as a volunteer, officer's servant or able seaman, and was roughly equivalent to a present day petty officer in rank and responsibilities. After serving at least three years as a midshipman or master's mate, he was eligible to take the examination for lieutenant. Promotion to lieutenant was not automatic and many midshipmen took positions as master's mates for an increase in pay and responsibility aboard ship. Midshipmen in the United States Navy were trained and served similarly to midshipman in the Royal Navy, although unlike their counterparts in the Royal Navy, a midshipman was a warrant officer rank until 1912.

During the 19th century, changes in the training of naval officers in both the Royal Navy and the United States Navy led to the replacement of apprenticeship aboard ships with formal schooling in a naval college, and the role of midshipman changed accordingly. Midshipman began to mean an officer cadet at a naval college. Trainees now spent around four years in a college and two years at sea prior to promotion to commissioned officer rank. Between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, time at sea declined to less than a year as the entry age was increased from 12 to 18.

Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in many other navies, especially in those whose officer training structures resemble that of Britain's Royal Navy. The Netherlands and Germany both train officer candidates in naval colleges, though trainees remain within the petty officer ranks and are not elevated to candidate or commissioned officer status until graduation. In many romance languages, the literal translation of the local term for "midshipman" into English is "Navy Guard", including the French garde marine, Spanish guardia marina, Portuguese guarda-marinha, and Italian guardiamarina. Today, these ranks all refer to young naval officer cadets, but historically they were selected by the monarchy, and were trained mostly on land as soldiers.

History

Apprentice officers

Royal Navy (1662–1858)

Midshipman of the Royal Navy (c. 1799),^[1] by Thomas Rowlandson

The rank of midshipman is one of the oldest still in existence, and originally referred to a senior petty officer. The first published use of the term midshipman was in 1662.^[2] After 1677, all candidates for commissioned rank in the Royal Navy required previous service as a midshipman; after 1794, all newly rated midshipmen were considered to be candidates for a commission.^[2][3] The word derives from an area aboard a ship, amidships, but it refers either to the location where midshipmen worked on the ship,^[4]or the location where midshipmen were berthed.^[5]

During the Tudor and Stuart eras, the term midshipman referred to a post for an experienced seaman promoted from the ordinary deck hands, who worked in between the main and mizzen mast and had more responsibility than an ordinary seaman, but was not a military officer or an officer in training.^[4] By the 18th century three types of midshipman existed: midshipman, midshipman extraordinary, and midshipman ordinary. Members of the original midshipman rating served, as late as 1822, alongside apprentice officers without themselves aspiring to a commission.^[6] Before half-pay was introduced for all officers in the early part of the 18th century, a midshipman extraordinary, or midshipman extra, was an officer ranked master, lieutenant, or captain, whose ship had been paid off but who would be paid as a midshipman until he could find another ship.^[6][2]

Midshipman ordinary

Beginning in 1660, volunteer boys were sent to serve on ships in place of a midshipman, with a "letter of service," from the crown. This instructed the admirals and captains that the bearer was to be shown "such kindness as you shall judge fit for a gentleman, both in accommodating him in your ship and in furthering his improvement."^[7] Their official rating was volunteer-per-order, but they were often known as King's letter boys, to distinguish their higher social class from the original midshipman rating; after 1729, the rating of midshipman-by-order, or midshipman ordinary, was used for apprentice officers.^[6]

At the height of the Age of Sail, during the Napoleonic era (1793–1815), most midshipmen started their sailing career around the age of 12.^[8] Royal Navy regulations required that no one "be rated as master's mate or midshipman who shall not have been three years at sea".^[8] Most boys served this period at sea in any lower rating,^[9] either as a servant of one of the ship's officers, a volunteer, or as a seaman. For example, prior to 1794, a captain was entitled to four servants for every 100 men aboard his ship; many of these servants were young men destined to become officers.^[10] In 1794, a new class of volunteers called 'Volunteer Class I' was created for young gentlemen, between the ages of 11 and 13, who intended to become sea officers. Volunteers were paid £6 per year.^[10]

Prospective officers could also earn three years of sea service through the Royal Naval Academy in Portsmouth, renamed the Royal Naval College in 1806. The school was founded in 1729, for 40 students between 13 and 16, who would take three years to complete a course of study defined in an illustrated book.^[8] After graduation students served on ships as midshipmen.^[8] The school was unpopular, due to an aversion to 'book learning' in the navy; it was also perceived as an infringement on officers' privileges in the matter of taking on servants.^[10]

Social background

Midshipmen in the Age of Sail came from various social backgrounds. The largest group was the sons of professional men, accounting for about 50 percent of officers. This group included the sons of naval officers, and there were notable sailing families throughout the Age of Sail, such as the Saumarez, Hood, and Parker families. The niceties of preferment and promotion made family connections an obvious advantage for prospective officers. The next largest group came from the landed gentry, representing about 27 percent of officers. The numbers were smaller, but similarly, their connections gave them excellent prospects for promotion, and they had a considerable influence on the Royal Navy. The rest were from commercial or working class backgrounds, and because of the advantages possessed by the gentry and professional sailors, their chances at promotion to lieutenant were slim.^[10]

Since most midshipmen were from the landed gentry or had family connections with sailing ships, many used their connections to have their names placed on a ship's books.^[8] A notable example was Thomas Cochrane, whose uncle had him entered at the age of five; his name was carried on various ships until he was 18 and received his commission.^[8] Because these boys would serve in various ratings until their promotion to lieutenant, they were often called young gentlemen instead of their substantive rating to distinguish their higher social standing from the ordinary sailors.^[7][11]

Duties and promotion

Midshipmen were expected to work on the ship, but were also expected to learn navigation and seamanship. The work consisted of tasks normally assigned to seamen and to officers. They were expected to have learned already, as able seamen and volunteers, to rig sails; other duties included keeping watch, relaying messages between decks, supervising gun batteries, commanding small boats, and taking command of sub-division of the ship's company under one of the lieutenants. In smaller ships midshipmen were instructed by a senior master's mate, often a passed midshipman, who taught them mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. Larger ships would carry a schoolmaster, who was rated as a midshipman but usually was a civilian like the chaplain. Midshipmen were expected to keep detailed navigational logs, which were shown to the captain to assess their progress.^[10][12]

Route to a commission in the Royal Navy, c. 1810^[13]

Prior to promotion to lieutenant, a commissioned officer candidate in the Royal Navy had to pass a formal examination. Most midshipmen aspired to take the lieutenant examination at age 17 or 18, and the average age of a midshipman was between 15 and 22.^[9] The candidate was summoned before a board of three captains and questioned about seamanship, navigation, and discipline. The board would ask questions such as:

An enemy is observed; give orders for clearing your ship, and make all the necessary preparations for engaging.^[14]

The actual exam questions were not standardized and their content depended mostly on individual captains. A prospective lieutenant was expected to produce proof of his service, journals kept while a midshipman, and certificates from his commanders attesting his diligence and sobriety. In seamanship, he was expected to be able to splice ropes, reef a sail, work a ship in sailing and shift his tides. In navigation, he was expected to be able to keep a reckoning of the ship's way by plane sailing, to use Mercator projection maps and observation of the sun and stars to determine the course and position of the ship, and understand the variation of the compass. He was also expected to be qualified to do the duty of an able seaman and midshipman.^[14]

Successful completion of the examination made the midshipman a 'passed midshipman'.^[14] From the 18th century until the second half of the 19th century, a midshipman in the Royal Navy who passed the lieutenant's examination did not automatically receive a commission. Midshipmen with political connections were promoted first, while others would wait their turn on a roster. During wartime, when large numbers of ships and men might be lost in battle, most passed midshipman would be promoted in a year or two, but during peacetime the wait might be so long that the midshipman would be considered too old and would lose his chance at a commission.^[15]

Passed midshipmen awaiting promotion often elected to become master's mates, an experienced petty officer who assisted to the master. Though formally the rating did not lead to promotion to lieutenant, master's mates were paid more than any other rating and were the only ratings allowed to command any sort of vessel.^[16] A midshipman who became master's mate earned an increase in pay from £1 13s 6p to £3 16s per month, but initially reduced his chances at a commission.^[15][17] Over time, however, an appointment of master's mate became considered a normal part of the path to a commission; the situation caused some confusion during the last part of the 18th century, when two parallel roles – master's mates trying to become masters, and former midshipmen working toward a commission – held the same title and responsibilities aboard ship.^[18]

By the first years of the nineteenth century, the prefix "master's" was dropped for passed midshipmen, to distinguish them from master's mates in the navigator's branch.^[15] In 1824 two further grades were also introduced, consisting of master's assistants and second-class volunteers. These corresponded to midshipmen and first-class volunteers respectively in the executive line. From this point, passed midshipmen had the rating master's mate, abbreviated as mate, and prospective masters had the rating master's assistant. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigator's branch.^[18] In 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant.^[15] In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant.^[15]

United States Navy (1794–1845)

When Congress created the United States Navy in 1794, midshipman was listed as a rank of warrant officer, not a rating, and were appointed by the president of the United States.^[19] Midshipmen had similar duties and responsibilities as in the Royal Navy, and were generally teenagers training to become a naval officer.^[20] "Passed midshipman", was first used in 1819, and was an official rank of the United States Navy.^[21]

During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846 midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion, and their warrants were often obtained via patronage. The poor quality of officer training in the U. S. Navy became visible after the Somers Affair, an alleged mutiny aboard the USS Somers (1842) in 1842, and the execution of midshipman Philip Spencer. Spencer was son of United States Secretary of War John C. Spencer, had been expelled from two colleges and had drunk his way off two ships before being sent to the Somers, and had only gained his commission via the influence of his father.^[20]

Cadet officers

In the middle of the 19th century, naval officer education in the Royal Navy and the United States Navy changed to replace Age of Sail apprenticeships with formal training in naval colleges. The shift presaged the redefinition of midshipman along the lines it has today, as an officer cadet at a naval college. Trainees now spent around four years in a college, and time at sea declined; entry age was increased from 12 to 18 between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries. 20th century midshipmen were required to master four to five times as much information as their counterparts a century earlier, with only half as much time, or even less, in which to learn it.^[22]

Royal Navy from 1858

The original Royal Naval College closed in 1836, after which the only method for training midshipman in the Royal Navy was aboard ships. The closure precipitated a fall in qualified officers numbers, prompting an 1856 Navy commission to recommend the opening of a school to train midshipmen for the Royal Navy, called the The Royal Naval College. The school was officially founded in 1858 in Portsmouth; the wooden hulk HMS Britannia was selected as a training ship, and instruction of boys between 12 and 14 started on January 1, 1859.^[23] The Britannia was moved to Portland in 1862, and finally in 1863 to the present location of the school in Dartmouth.^[23] Officer instruction consisted of two years of classroom training at the Royal Naval College, during which time trainees were rated as Cadets, followed by a year aboard a special training vessel.

At this point, cadets were rated as midshipmen, and served aboard the fleet another two years.^[24] Midshipmen lived in the gunroom, kept watches, and ran the ships boats.^[24] Every day they received instruction in navigation from the navigation instructor on board.^[24] After five total years of training and having reached the age of 19, the midshipmen were eligible to take the examination for lieutenant.^[24][25] After passing the examination for lieutenant, midshipmen were commissioned as sub-lieutenants, and were transferred to the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, which opened in 1873 as the 'University of the Navy'.^[24]

United States Navy from 1845

Although the United States Military Academy was founded in 1802, every one of twenty attempts made between 1800 and 1845 to persuade Congress to approve the creation of a naval officer's school had failed.^[26] This was due to objections within the Navy that preferred the apprenticeship system, noting famous officers such as Nelson and the captains in the Navy in the war of 1812 did not attend a formal naval school. However, after the Somers Affair, officers within the Navy realized that the system for training officers had to change to be more efficient.^[26]

George Bancroft, appointed Secretary of the Navy by President Polk in 1845, decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers.^[26] He formed a council lead by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers, and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy in 1851.^[26] Midshipmen studied at the Academy for four years and trained aboard ships each summer.^[27] Midshipman began to mean passed midshipman at this time, and a student at the Naval Academy was a cadet midshipman.^[28] The rank of ensign was created in 1862, and passed midshipmen were promoted to ensign when vacancies occurred.^[28]

In 1874, Congress changed the curriculum to include four years of classroom training and two years of sea duty aboard a regular vessel prior to examinations as warranted midshipmen.^[29] In 1882, Congress eliminated the distinction between engineer and naval cadets, and designated the student officers as naval cadets; the name reverted to midshipman in 1902.^[27] In 1912, Congress authorized commissioning midshipmen as ensigns on graduation day, and ended the previously required two years of post-graduation sea service as warrant officers.^[27][30]

Commonwealth navies

As Dominions of the British Empire formed their own navies during the 20th century, further countries began using the rank of midshipman. Today Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Kenya use the rank.^[31] Prior to 1968 Canada also used the rank of midshipman, until the National Defense Act consolidated the Royal Canadian Navy with the Army and Air Force into a single military, called the Canadian Forces. As part of the act, the rank of midshipman was replaced with the rank of naval cadet.^[32]

Snotty

In Royal Navy slang, a midshipman is sometimes referred to as a "snotty". Two popular stories give origins for the term: the first claims that it arose due to a shortage of handkerchiefs among midshipmen, who would consequently use their sleeves to wipe their noses. Prince William, later William IV, is sometimes cited as a notorious example of this practice among midshipmen.^[33] The other story claims that the three buttons formerly sewn onto midshipmen's jacket cuffs were placed there to prevent the men wiping their noses on their sleeves.^[33][34] There is no evidence to support either story, but the nickname persists today.^[33]

Modern usage

Royal Navy

Royal Navy midshipman's insignia^[35]

In the modern Royal Navy a midshipman is the second lowest rank of officer, above the rank of Cadet RN which is referred to in the Naval Discipline Act 1957 ^[36] but no longer used. Midshipmen are officers in the Royal Navy, and rank immediately below Second Lieutenants in the British Army and Pilot Officers in the Royal Air Force and above all enlisted and warrant ranks (although pre-1956 Royal Navy and Royal Marines warrant officers and commissioned officers from Warrant Rank were senior to midshipmen). A midshipman's rank insignia, which have changed little since Napoleonic times, are a white patch of cloth with a gold button and a twist of white cord on each side of the coat collar.^[37][38]

Prospective officers must have at least five GCSEs, including English and maths, plus at least 180 UCAS points from A levels or other suitable qualifications. They must pass a two-and-a-half day assessment, called the Admiralty Interview Board, and a medical examination.^[39] Those joining the Navy as graduates start as sub-lieutenants, with non-graduates joining as midshipmen.^[39]

General basic training (Initial Officer Training) for Royal Navy officers takes place at the Britannia Royal Naval College.^[40] Training takes up to a year depending on specialization, but all midshipmen participate in the first two terms, which are 14 weeks each. Until they have completed initial fleet training, both midshipmen and sub-lieutenants at Britannia Royal Naval College do not use their substantive ranks, but use the non-substantive rank of Officer Cadet.^[41]

During the first seven weeks of training officer cadets learn militarization and sea sense, focusing on learning about the military environment, along with team and leadership skills.^[40] During the second seven weeks, officer cadets learn essential sea officer skills, including navigation and the marine environment, strategic studies, and basic sea survival.^[40] During the second term officer cadets spend 10 weeks in Initial Fleet Time (IFT), serving on board a Capital Warship as junior ratings.^[40] Upon completion of Initial Fleet Time, officer cadets return to Dartmouth for four weeks to complete their final leadership assessment, the Maritime Leadership Exercise (MARL), and a broadening week spent with different areas of the Royal Navy.^[40] If they have been successful, officers of all branches then pass out of the college.^[40]

Upon completion of Initial Officer Training, University Cadet Entrants, Engineering, Logistics and Flight specialization officer cadets will move straight to their second phase of training elsewhere within the Royal Navy.^[40] Midshipmen specializing in warfare remain at the college for the Initial Warfare Officer's Foundation course, which completes part of a Foundation Degree(FdSc) in Naval Studies (equating to two thirds of an Honours degree), on completion of initial Professional Training.^[42] Officers can complete their degrees via distance learning with the Open University, but completion is not required.^[42] After completion of their training at the college, a midshipman will sit the commissioning exam, the Fleet Board, and success at Fleet Board is the point where the officer cadet becomes a commissioned officer.^[40]

United States Navy and Marine Corps

U.S. Navy and Marine Corps midshipman rank structure.^[43]

In the modern US Navy, the term midshipman refers to an officer cadet. In the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps, a midshipman is classified as an officer of the line, but only in a qualified sense.^[44] Midshipmen rank between warrant officer (WO-1) and chief warrant officer (CWO-2).^[44][45] Students at the United States Naval Academy are appointed to the rank of midshipman, U.S. Navy, while students in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps(NROTC) are appointed as midshipman, United States Navy Reserve. Students at the United States Merchant Marine Academy are appointed as midshipman, United States Merchant Marine Reserve, U.S. Naval Reserve.^[46]

The student body at the U.S. Naval Academy is the Brigade of Midshipmen and the student body at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy is the Regiment of Midshipmen. The Midshipmen is also the name for sports teams fielded by the U.S. Naval Academy.^[47]

By an act of Congress passed in 1903, two appointments as Midshipmen were allowed for each senator, representative, and delegate in Congress, two for the District of Columbia, and five each year at large. Currently each member of Congress and the Vice President can have five appointees attending the Naval Academy at any time. ^[48] The Secretary of the Navy may appoint 170 enlisted members of the Regular and Reserve Navy and Marine Corps to the Naval Academy each year. Additionally, children of Medal of Honor recipients do not need a nomination but need only qualify for admission.^[49]

Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy and in the NROTC wear uniforms that comply with standards established for commissioned officers of the United States Navy, with shoulder board and sleeve insignia varying by school year or officer rank as prescribed by Chapter 6 of Navy Uniform Regulations.^[43] Midshipmen wear gold fouled anchors as the primary insignia on caps and shoulder boards and plain anchors as collar insignia on service dress and full dress uniforms. Marine option midshipmen in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps, who are in training to become officers in the U.S. Marine Corps, wear gold U.S. Marine enlisted globe and anchor insignia in place of the anchor insignia worn by other midshipmen.^[43] Marine option midshipmen, although bound for commissioning in the Marine Corps, hold the rank of midshipman, U.S. Naval Reserve.^[50]

The Naval Academy received accreditation as an approved "technological institution" in 1930. In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law an act of Congress providing for the Bachelor of Science Degree for the Naval, Military, and Coast Guard Academies. The Class of 1933 was the first to receive this degree and have it written in the diploma. In 1937, an act of Congress extended to the Superintendent of the Naval Academy the authority to award the Bachelor of Science degree to all living graduates. The Academy later replaced a fixed curriculum taken by all midshipmen with the present core curriculum plus 21 major fields of study, a wide variety of elective courses and advanced study and research opportunities.^[51] Upon graduation, midshipmen are commissioned as an ensign in the Navy or a second lieutenant in the Marine Corps.^[52]

Other Commonwealth nations

Royal Australian Navy

Royal Australian Navy midshipman insignia^[53]

A midshipman in the Royal Australian Navy holds a commission, which is not confirmed and not officially issued until promotion to lieutenant. The rank of midshipman is an entirely transitional rank, indicating that a person is under training to be a Naval officer.^[54] Generally, trainees who have no university education or a three-year degree enter the college as midshipmen, while trainees with significant experience or more university education enter as sub-lieutenants, lieutenants or chaplains.^[55]

On joining the Royal Australian Navy, most midshipmen complete six months' initial officer training at the Royal Australian Naval College, followed by a six-month consolidation period in the fleet.^[56] Midshipmen then study at the Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) in their second year in the Navy, while Navy pilots and observers go directly to ADFA. Midshipmen undertake an undergraduate degree over the course of three years, whilst also completing elements of their naval training.^[57] Cadets at ADFA are also undergraduate students of the University of New South Wales (UNSW). When they graduate from UNSW at ADFA at the completion of their three or four year undergraduate program, they do so with a fully recognized degree from UNSW - the same as the degree received by graduates of UNSW's campus in Sydney.^[58] During Single Service Training at ADFA all midshipmen visit shore establishments and go to sea on Navy ships to gain an appreciation of shipboard life.^[57]

Royal New Zealand Navy

Royal New Zealand Navy midshipman patch ^[59]

In the Royal New Zealand Navy, midshipman is the rank given to officers under training, and retained upon completion of initial training by those without a university degree.^[59] Those who hold a University degree are promoted to sub-lieutenant upon completion of training.^[60] Unlike officer cadet ranks in the Army, midshipmen are treated as officers and hold a commission.^[61] At any given time there may be around 60 midshipmen in the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN).^[59]

South African Navy

South African Navy midshipman insignia ^[62]

A midshipman in the South African Navy is an officer of the lowest rank.^[62] Officer candidates are South African citizens, between the ages of 18 and 22, either in grade 12 or graduated from high school with an academic background in mathematics and science.^[63] Cadets initially spend a year training at the South African Naval College in Gordon's Bay, near Simonstown, and upon graduation are commissioned as midshipmen.^[64] Midshipmen study for three more years at the South African Military Academy, and upon graduation receive a B Mil degree from the University of Stellenbosch.^[65]

Indian Navy

Indian Navy midshipman insignia^[31]

Midshipmen in the Indian Navy begin their career as cadets at the National Defence Academy, or the Indian Naval Academy, where they study for approximately three years. After graduation they receive a B.Tech degree by Jawahar Lal Nehru University (JNU) and are assigned to training ships for one year. After six months aboard the training ship, the cadets are promoted to midshipman.^[66] At the end of their training midshipmen are examined by a board and are cleared for promotion to acting sub-lieutenant.^[67]

Pakistan Navy

Pakistan Navy midshipman insignia

Cadets in the Pakistan Navy undertake an initial 18 months' training at the Pakistan Naval Academy. They study humanities, engineering, professional and technical subjects.^[68] After passing out they are appointed midshipmen,^[69] and undertake another six months of training at sea. They are assigned to one of the four different branches, including Operations, Weapons Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Logistics. After passing the final fleet examination, they are promoted to the rank of sub-lieutenant.

Other countries

Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in other countries, especially in those whose naval officer training structures resemble that of Britain's Royal Navy. The Dutch navy has since the early 17th century included a midshipman rank called 'Young Gentlemen' (Dutch: Adelborst),^[70] and the German navy includes several ranks which translate uneasily to midshipman.^[71] German officer cadets begin their training in the enlisted ranks with the qualifier officer candidate (German: Offizieranwärter), abbreviated as OA.^[71] After about a year, they are promoted to Seekadetten,^[71] equivalent to the non-commissioned officer (NCO) rank Mate (German: Maat).^[72] About nine months later, they are promoted to Fähnrich zur See rank,^[71] equivalent to the NCO rank Boatswain (German: Bootsmann).^[72] After 30 months of total training they are promoted to the final officer candidate rank, Oberfähnrich zur See,^[71] equivalent to the NCO rank Hauptbootsmann.^[72] The rank "midshipman" therefore corresponds to Offizieranwärter, Seekadett, Fähnrich,and Oberfähnrich, depending on context.

In many romance languages, the literal translation of the local term for "midshipman" into English is "Navy Guard", including the French garde-marine,^[73] Spanish guardia marina,^[74] Portuguese guarda-marinha, and Italian guardiamarina. These ranks all refer to young naval officer cadets, but the selection, training, and responsibilities of each diverges from the British tradition. The French rank of garde de la marine was established in 1670, when an office of the monarchy selected young gentlemen from the nobility to serve the King in the Gardes de la Marine. These guards were in 1686 organized into companies of cadets at the ports of Brest, Rochefort and Toulon. They trained in navigation and military disciplines, mostly on shore.^[73] The concept of the Gardes was borrowed from the army, and the curriculum was intended to provide the basic education for an officer rather than practical seamanship.^[75] The Spanish navy developed its professional officer education from the 18th century, under its new Bourbon monarch, following the French model. It instituted the rank of guardia marina in 1717, with the formation at Cadiz of the Royal Company of Midshipmen (Spanish: Real Compañía de Guardias Marinas).^[75][76]

Just before the French Revolution, in 1786, reforms introduced into the French navy produced a more efficient and rational system. Rather as in Britain, a petty officer with six years' service might join officer ranks following an examination. Such newly recruited officers wore blue uniforms, unlike the red uniforms of the Gardes de la Marine, a reminder of their more lowly social status.^[77] After the revolution, the royal connotations of the term garde marine led its replacement with aspirant (naval cadet), and then élèves de la Marine, or officer candidate.^[73] Contemporary French naval officer training still reflects this structure: students at the École navale begin their the first year as élève officier, are promoted in their second year to aspirant, and in their third year are commissioned as Ensign 2nd Class. In a modern French dictionary, élève officier translates to midshipman, but both the historical term garde-marine and the modern term for an officer candidate, aspirant, are equivalent to midshipman.^[78][79]

In most Spanish and Portuguese speaking countries, officers begin training at the rank of naval cadet, called "aspirante" in both languages. They are promoted to the rank guardia marina/guarda-marinha during training (in Spain and Brazil) or after graduation (in Portugal).^[80] Similarly, in Italy officer cadets are aspirante guardiamarina), and the lowest rank of commissioned officer is guardiamarina, terms which translate to candidate midshipman and midshipman respectively.^[81]

Comparative ranks and insignia

Country	Equivalent Rank	Insignia
Brazil	Guarda-marinha[82]	Guarda marinha insignia
Canada	Naval Cadet / Aspirant de marine[83]	Naval Cadet insignia
France	Aspirant[84]	Aspirant insignia
Germany	Seekadett/Fähnrich zur See/Oberfähnrich zur See[85][71]	Seekadett Fähnrich zur See Oberfähnrich zur See insignia
Italy	Aspirante guardiamarina[86]	Aspirante guardiamarina insignia
Netherlands	Adelborst[70]	Adelborst Korporaal Adelborst Sergeant Adelborst insignia
Malaysia	Pegawai Kadet Kanan[31]	Kadet Kanan Shoulder Insignia
Norway	Kvartermester[72][87]	Kvartermester sleeve insignia
Portugal	Aspirante[88]	Sleeve insignia for students from the Escola Naval Sleeve insignia for others
Spain	Guardiamarina/Aspirante[89]	Guardiamarina (left, 4th year) and Aspirante (right, 2nd year) insignia

See also

• Officer Cadet

Footnotes

References

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