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(Formerly Outer Mongolia.) A country of north-central Asia between Russia and China. Originally part of the Mongol Empire, the area was under Chinese control from 1691 to 1911 and from 1919 to 1921, when it formed a separate state under the protection of the USSR. Ulaanbaatar is the capital and the largest city. Population: 2,830,000.
For more information on Mongolia, visit Britannica.com.
Despite traditions of early contacts with Buddhist teachers, the historical transmission of Buddhism to Mongolia occurred at a late date, primarily through the efforts of the Tibetans and to a lesser extent the Uighurs. Prior to the foundation of the Mongolian state by Jenghis Khan in the 12th century ce, the earliest Mongolian contacts with Buddhism probably occurred through contact with Chinese Buddhist missionaries and the flow of travellers along the Silk Road. During the 13th century, under Jenghis Khan, the Uighur script was adopted for Mongolian use and some Buddhist texts are thought to have been translated at that time. However, Buddhism did not make great inroads among the population until the Tibetan leader Sakya Paṇḍita visited the court of Godan Khan in 1244 and made some conversions. This process was accelerated by cordial contacts between Phags pa blo dro (1235-89) and Kublai Khan. In contrast to this interest in Buddhism among Mongolian aristocrats, it was not until the Dalai Lama III (1543-88) made contact with the court of Altan Khan and gained his support that large-scale missionary efforts were undertaken among the populace in general and the construction of the first monastery took place. This was further promoted by the efforts of Jaya Paṇḍita in the 17th century who was active among the western and northern Mongols. The translation and printing of the entire Buddhist canon into Mongolian from the Tibetan Kanjur and Tenjur was undertaken in the 18th century with the patronage of the Ch'ing emperors Kang-his (1661-1722) and Ch'ien-lung (1736-95). This generated an enormous impetus in the growth of Tibetan-style Buddhism in Mongolia and led to the establishment of almost 2,000 temples and monasteries in all areas of the country. The Mongolian Communist revolution in 1920 heralded a period of wholesale decline and persecution of Buddhism and resulted in the destruction of virtually all of the previously existing monasteries and temples, estimated to have exceeded 1,200 in the 19th century, as well as the execution or forcible laicization of the Saṃgha. The return to a democratic form of government in the 1990s has allowed a considerable revival of interest in Buddhism.
Land and People
A high country, Mongolia has an average elevation exceeding 5,100 ft (1,554 m); the central, northern, western, and southwestern areas are covered with hills, high plateaus, and mountain ranges, reaching 15,266 ft (4,653 m) at Tavan Bogd Uul (Tabun Bogdo) in the Altai Mts. Much of the Gobi desert lies to the south and east; at no point is the elevation less than c.1,800 ft (550 m). Numerous lakes fill the depressions between the mountains; the largest, Uvs Nuur, or Ubsu Nur (c.1,300 sq mi/3,370 sq km) is saltwater. The main rivers are in the north and include the Selenga (Selenge Mörön), with its long tributary the Orkhon (Orhon), which flows into Lake Baykal in Russia; and the Kerulen. Navigability is limited—the rivers are swift and rough; they freeze in the winter, and many dry up during droughts.
The country's climate is dry continental, with little rain or snow and great extremes in temperature. Winters are severe, with low temperatures and high winds that blow away the light snow cover, causing the ground to freeze deeply; summers can be very hot.
The population is predominantly Khalkha Mongol. Minorities include Oirat Mongols, Kazakhs, Chinese, and Russians. Khalkha Mongolian, the official language, was until the 1940s written in the old Uigur Turkic script; it now uses the Cyrillic alphabet. Turkic, Russian, and Chinese are also spoken by some. The dominant religion has long been Lamaist Buddhism, but it was harshly repressed under the Communist regime. It was not until the waning of Communist power in the early 1990s that religious freedom reemerged. There are also small Muslim and Christian minorities.
Economy
The paucity of snow in Mongolia permits year-round grazing, and nomadic herding has been the major occupation for centuries. Although the number of such herders is gradually declining, animal husbandry is still the mainstay of the Mongolian economy, and Mongolia has the world's highest number of livestock per person. Sheep and goats constitute most of the livestock, followed by cattle and horses; yaks are raised in the higher altitudes, and camels are extremely important in the desert and semidesert areas. Agriculture is limited since only 1% of the land is arable. Wheat is the chief crop, followed by barley, oats, corn, millet, rye, legumes, and potatoes.
Hunting is a source of revenue; the country abounds in wildlife, and sable, fox, lynx, marmot, snow leopard, squirrel, and wolf are all trapped for their furs. Mongolia has valuable timberlands, especially in the northern mountainous area; logs are shipped down the Selenga, Orkhon, and Kerulen rivers. Mineral resources are abundant. The extensive coal deposits have been exploited since 1913. Copper, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, gold, iron ore, fluorspar, uranium, zinc, lead, silver, and salt are also mined.
Industry, which was developed with Soviet aid, is centered chiefly in Ulaanbaatar. It is based largely on the country's livestock resources, with dairy products, packed meats, leather and leather goods, and woolen textiles and related items (clothing, blankets, carpets) the chief manufactures. The building-material, copper-smelting, lumber, and oil industries are also important. Choybalsan and Darhan near the Russian border have become industrial centers.
The country has one railroad line running north and south from the Russian border through Ulaanbaatar to the Chinese frontier, with a few spur lines to mining or industrial points. Although the number of motor vehicles is increasing, there are few paved roads and beasts of burden are still used, notably in the south, where camel caravans are common. There are also numerous airports.
Mongolia's main exports are copper, apparel, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, and nonferrous metals; imports include machinery and equipment, cars, fuel, foodstuffs, consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea. Most of its foreign trade is with China, Russia, the United States, Canada, and South Korea.
Government
Mongolia is governed under the constitution of 1992. The president, who is head of state, is popularly elected for a four-year term and is eligible for a second term. The government is headed by the prime minister. The unicameral legislature consists of the 76-seat State Great Hural, whose members are popularly elected for four-year terms. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or majority coalition is usually elected prime minister by the legislature. Administratively, the country is divided into 21 provinces and the capital district.
Modern History
For the early history of Mongolia, see Mongols. The area was under Chinese control from 1691 until the collapse of the Manchu dynasty in China in 1911, when a group of Mongol princes ousted the Manchu governor and proclaimed an autonomous Mongolia with Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu (the Living Buddha of Urga) as ruler. The new state was reoccupied by the Chinese in 1919. The Chinese were driven out by White Russian forces under Baron von Ungern-Sternberg in early 1921, and the Whites in turn were ousted by Red Army troops and Mongolian units under the Mongolian Communist leaders Sukhe-Bator and Khorloin Choibalsan.
Mongolia was proclaimed an independent state in July, 1921, and remained a monarchy until the Living Buddha died in 1924. The establishment (Nov., 1924) of the Communist-led Mongolian People's Republic was followed by a struggle to divest the old privileged classes of their capital (largely in the form of land and livestock) and persecution of the Lama priests; this in turn led to the Lama Rebellion of 1932, when priests led thousands of people, with some 7 million head of livestock, across the border to Inner Mongolia.
In 1936 the USSR signed a mutual aid pact with the republic, thus formalizing the existing close relations between the two countries. A constitution adopted in 1940 consolidated the power of the Communist regime. During World War II the Mongolian army joined the USSR in Manchuria in the last, brief stage of the war against Japan. In 1945 a plebiscite was held under a Sino-Soviet agreement, and the republic overwhelmingly voted for continued independence. Khorloin Choibalsan, the prime minister from 1938 until his death in 1952, was succeeded by Yumzhaggiin Tsedenbal. A new constitution came into force in 1960, and Mongolia was admitted to the United Nations in 1961.
In the ideological dispute between the Soviet Union and China, Mongolia traditionally supported the Soviet Union. Mongolia's position shifted during the 1980s, however, and it established diplomatic relations with China in 1986 and with the United States a year later. After a series of demonstrations in the late 1980s calling for freedom and human rights, the Communist party voted to relinquish its constitutional power, which led to the election by the parliament of Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat as president in 1990. In the same year a multiparty political system was also instituted, and in 1991 the country was renamed the State of Mongolia.
In 1992, Mongolia opened its first stock exchange and adopted a new democratic constitution; the Mongolian People's Revolutionary party (MPRP—the former Communists) overwhelmingly retained control of parliament in elections that year. However, Ochirbat, running as a non-Communist, won Mongolia's first free presidential election in 1993. In the first half of 1996, Mongolia was beset by wildfires that raged for more than three months and scorched 41,000 sq mi (106,000 sq km) of forest and rangeland. In the 1996 parliamentary elections the opposition Democratic Union Coalition won a stunning upset, gaining nearly two thirds of the seats. Following a downturn in the economy, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, the candidate of the MPRP, won a decisive victory against Ochirbat in the 1997 presidential elections.
Parliamentary elections in 2000 resulted in a nearly total win for the MPRP, which won 95% of the seats; Natsagiyn Enkhbayar became prime minister. Bagabandi was reelected in May, 2001. In the 2004 parliamentary elections the opposition alliance, now called the Motherland Democratic Coalition, won two fewer seats than the MPRP, but also claimed two seats that MPRP contested in court. The unexpected turnabout led to weeks of wrangling and a delay in inaugurating parliament. In August, however, the MPRP and the opposition agreed to form a unity government, and Democrat Tsakhiagiyn Elbegdorj became prime minister. Elbegdorj had previously held the office for seven months in 1998. In the 2005 presidential elections, MPRP candidate Nambaryn Enkhbayar won; Enkhbayar had served as prime minister in the early 1990s. In Jan., 2006, the unity government collapsed when the MPRP withdrew. The MPRP formed a new government with support from minor parties and some Democrats; Miyeegombo Enkhbold, the former mayor of Ulaanbaatar, was named prime minister.
Bibliography
See O. Lattimore, Nomads and Commissars: Mongolia Revisited (1962); R. A. Rupen, The Mongolian People's Republic (1966); A. M. Pozdneev, Mongolia and the Mongols (Vol. I tr. 1971); S. Akiner, ed., Mongolia Today (1989); C. R. Bawden, The Modern History of Mongolia (1989).
Mongolia is chiefly a region of desert and of steppe plateau from c.3,000 to 5,000 ft (910–1,520 m) high. Winters are cold and dry and summers are warm and brief. The Gobi desert, which is entirely wasteland, is in the central section. To the west are the Altai Mts., which rise to 15,266 ft (4,653 m). Rivers include a section of the Huang He (Yellow River) in the south and the Selenga, Orkhon, and Kerulen in the north. Rainfall averages less than 15 in. (38.1 cm) a year.
Economy
Mongolia has traditionally been a land of pastoral nomadism; livestock raising and the processing of animal products are the main industries. Wool, hides, meat, cloth, and leather goods are exported. Irrigation has made some agriculture possible; wheat and oats are the chief crops. Coal, iron ore, gold, and oil are important mineral resources. Mongolia is crossed north to south by a railroad linking Beijing with Russia. The region has an adequate system of roadways, although most roads are unpaved. Camels and yaks are often used in desert and mountain areas. Trade traditionally has been greater with Russia than with China, but this has been changing in recent years.
History
Great hordes of horsemen have repeatedly swept down from Mongolia into N China, establishing vast, although generally short-lived, empires. In the 1st cent. A.D. Mongolia was inhabited by various Turkic tribes who dwelt mainly along the upper course of the Orkhon River. It was also the home of the Hsiung-nu (the Huns) who ravaged (1st–5th cent.) N China. The Uigur Turks founded their first empire (744–856) with its capital near Karakorum in W Mongolia. The Khitan, who founded the Liao dynasty (947–1125) in N China, were from Mongolia. Many smaller territorial states followed until (c.1205) Jenghiz Khan conquered all Mongolia, united its tribes, and from his capital at Karakorum led the Mongols in creating one of the greatest empires of all time. His successors established the Golden Horde in SE Russia and founded the Hulagid dynasty of Persia and the Yuan dynasty (1260–1368) of China.
After the decline of the Mongol empire, Mongolia intruded less in world affairs. China, which earlier had gained control of Inner Mongolia, subjugated Outer Mongolia in the late 17th cent., but in the succeeding years struggled with Russia for control. Outer Mongolia finally broke away in 1921 to form the Mongolian People's Republic (now Mongolia). Inner Mongolia remained under Chinese control, although the Japanese conquered Rehe (1933), which they included in Manchukuo, and Chahar and Suiyuan (1937), which they formed into Mengjiang (Mongol Border Land). These areas were returned to China after World War II. In 1944, Tannu Tuva (see Tuva Republic), long recognized as part of Mongolia but under Russian influence since 1911, was incorporated within the USSR (now Russia). The Chinese Communists joined most of Inner Mongolia to N Rehe prov. and W Heilongjiang prov. to form the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region in 1949.
Country in north-central Asia, bordered by Russian Siberia to the north, and China to the east, south, and west. Its capital and largest city is Ulan Bator.
Local Time: May 18, 12:15 AM
| Regions: | (Western) |
| Regions: | (Central and Eastern) |
Introduction
| Background: | The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under Chinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his death the empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, but these broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventually retired to their original steppe homelands and later came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing. A Communist regime was installed in 1924. The ex-Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990 and 1992, but was defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) in the 1996 parliamentary election. Since then, parliamentary elections returned the MPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000 and produced a coalition government in 2004. |
Geography
| Location: | Northern Asia, between China and Russia |
| Geographic coordinates: | 46 00 N, 105 00 E |
| Map references: | Asia |
| Area: | total: 1,564,116 sq km |
| Area - comparative: | slightly smaller than Alaska |
| Land boundaries: | total: 8,220 km border countries: China 4,677 km, Russia 3,543 km |
| Coastline: | 0 km (landlocked) |
| Maritime claims: | none (landlocked) |
| Climate: | desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges) |
| Terrain: | vast semidesert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in south-central |
| Elevation extremes: | lowest point: Hoh Nuur 518 m highest point: Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) 4,374 m |
| Natural resources: | oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, fluorspar, gold, silver, iron |
| Land use: | arable land: 0.76% permanent crops: 0% other: 99.24% (2005) |
| Irrigated land: | 840 sq km (2003) |
| Natural hazards: | dust storms, grassland and forest fires, drought, and "zud," which is harsh winter conditions |
| Environment - current issues: | limited natural fresh water resources in some areas; the policies of former Communist regimes promoted rapid urbanization and industrial growth that had negative effects on the environment; the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws severely polluted the air in Ulaanbaatar; deforestation, overgrazing, and the converting of virgin land to agricultural production increased soil erosion from wind and rain; desertification and mining activities had a deleterious effect on the environment |
| Environment - international agreements: | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements |
| Geography - note: | landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia |
People
| Population: | 2,951,786 (July 2007 est.) |
| Age structure: | 0-14 years: 28.7% (male 432,309/female 415,382) 15-64 years: 67.4% (male 994,186/female 995,986) 65 years and over: 3.9% (male 49,517/female 64,406) (2007 est.) |
| Median age: | total: 24.6 years male: 24.2 years female: 24.9 years (2007 est.) |
| Population growth rate: | 1.486% (2007 est.) |
| Birth rate: | 21.07 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) |
| Death rate: | 6.21 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) |
| Net migration rate: | 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) |
| Sex ratio: | at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.041 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.998 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.769 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2007 est.) |
| Infant mortality rate: | total: 42.65 deaths/1,000 live births male: 45.86 deaths/1,000 live births female: 39.27 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) |
| Life expectancy at birth: | total population: 66.99 years male: 64.61 years female: 69.48 years (2007 est.) |
| Total fertility rate: | 2.25 children born/woman (2007 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: | less than 0.1% (2003 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: | less than 500 (2003 est) |
| HIV/AIDS - deaths: | less than 200 (2003 est.) |
| Nationality: | noun: Mongolian(s) adjective: Mongolian |
| Ethnic groups: | Mongol (mostly Khalkha) 94.9%, Turkic (mostly Kazakh) 5%, other (including Chinese and Russian) 0.1% (2000) |
| Religions: | Buddhist Lamaist 50%, Shamanist and Christian 6%, Muslim 4%, none 40% (2004) |
| Languages: | Khalkha Mongol 90%, Turkic, Russian (1999) |
| Literacy: | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97.8% male: 98% female: 97.5% (2000 census) |
Government
| Country name: | conventional long form: none conventional short form: Mongolia local long form: none local short form: Mongol Uls former: Outer Mongolia |
| Government type: | mixed parliamentary/presidential |
| Capital: | name: Ulaanbaatar geographic coordinates: 47 55 N, 106 55 E time difference: UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Saturday in March; ends last Saturday in September |
| Administrative divisions: | 21 provinces (aymguud, singular - aymag) and 1 municipality* (singular - hot); Arhangay, Bayanhongor, Bayan-Olgiy, Bulgan, Darhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Dzavhan, Govi-Altay, Govisumber, Hentiy, Hovd, Hovsgol, Omnogovi, Orhon, Ovorhangay, Selenge, Suhbaatar, Tov, Ulaanbaatar*, Uvs |
| Independence: | 11 July 1921 (from China) |
| National holiday: | Independence Day/Revolution Day, 11 July (1921) |
| Constitution: | 12 February 1992 |
| Legal system: | blend of Soviet, German, and US systems that combine "continental" or "civil" code and case-precedent; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction |
| Suffrage: | 18 years of age; universal |
| Executive branch: | chief of state: President Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR (since 24 June 2005) head of government: Prime Minister Sanjaa BAYAR (since 22 November 2007); Deputy Prime Minister Mendsaikhan ENKHSAIKHAN (since 28 January 2006) cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the president and confirmed by the State Great Hural (parliament) elections: presidential candidates nominated by political parties represented in State Great Hural and elected by popular vote for a four-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held 22 May 2005 (next to be held in May 2009); following legislative elections, leader of majority party or majority coalition is usually elected prime minister by State Great Hural election results: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR elected president; percent of vote - Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR 53.44%, Mendsaikhanin ENKHSAIKHAN 20.05%, Bazarsadyn JARGALSAIKHAN 13.92%, Badarchyn ERDENEBAT 12.59%; Miegombyn ENKHBOLD elected prime minister by the State Great Hural 56 to 10 |
| Legislative branch: | unicameral State Great Hural 76 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms elections: last held 27 June 2004 (next to be held in June 2008) election results: percent of vote by party - MPRP 48.8%, MDC 44.8%, independents 3.5%, Republican Party 1.5%, others 1.4%; seats by party - MPRP 36, MDC 34, others 4; note - 2 seats disputed and unfilled; following June 2004 election MDC collapsed |
| Judicial branch: | Supreme Court (serves as appeals court for people's and provincial courts but rarely overturns verdicts of lower courts; judges are nominated by the General Council of Courts and approved by the president) |
| Political parties and leaders: | Citizens' Will Republican Party or CWRP [Sanjaasurengiin OYUN] (also called Civil Courage Republican Party or CCRP); Democratic Party or DP [Tsakhiagiyn ELBEGDORJ]; Motherland-Mongolian New Socialist Democratic Party or M-MNSDP [Badarchyn ERDENEBAT]; Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or MPRP [Sanji BAYAR]; Mongolian Republican Party or MRP [Bazarsadyn JARGALSAIKHAN]; People's Party or PP [Lamjav GUNDALAI] note: DP and M-MNSDP formed Motherland-Democracy Coalition (MDC) in 2003 and with CWRP contested June 2004 elections as single party; MDC's leadership dissolved coalition in December 2004 |
| Political pressure groups and leaders: | NA |
| International organization participation: | ARF, AsDB, CP, EBRD, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OPCW, OSCE (partner), SCO (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO |
| Diplomatic representation in the US: | chief of mission: Ambassador Ravdan BOLD chancery: 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007 telephone: [1] (202) 333-7117 FAX: [1] (202) 298-9227 |
| Diplomatic representation from the US: | chief of mission: Ambassador Mark C. MINTON embassy: Big Ring Road, 11th Micro Region, Ulaanbaatar mailing address: PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002; P.O. Box 1021, Ulaanbaatar-13 telephone: [976] (11) 329-095 FAX: [976] (11) 320-776 |
| Flag description: | three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol) |
Economy
| Economy - overview: | Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits. Copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990 and 1991 at the time of the dismantlement of the USSR. The following decade saw Mongolia endure both deep recession due to political inaction and natural disasters, as well as economic growth because of reform-embracing, free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-02 resulted in massive livestock die-off and zero or negative GDP growth. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia's primary sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth was 10.6% in 2004, 5.5% in 2005, and 7.5% in 2006, largely because of high copper prices and new gold production. Mongolia's economy continues to be heavily influenced by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products and a substantial amount of electric power from Russia, leaving it vulnerable to price increases. China is Mongolia's chief export partner and a main source of the "shadow" or "grey" economy. The World Bank and other international financial institutions estimate the grey economy to be at least equal to that of the official economy, but the former's actual size is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad both legally and illegally are sizable, and money laundering is a growing concern. Mongolia settled its $11 billion debt with Russia at the end of 2003 on favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes. |
| GDP (purchasing power parity): | $5.852 billion (2006 est.) |
| GDP (official exchange rate): | $1.54 billion (2006 est.) |
| GDP - real growth rate: | 7.5% according to official estimate (2006 est.) |
| GDP - composition by sector: | agriculture: 21.7% industry: 27.9% services: 50.4% (2003 est.) |
| Labor force: | 1.577 million (2005) |
| Labor force - by occupation: | agriculture: 39.9% industry: 31.4% services: 28.7% (2005) |
| Unemployment rate: | 3.3% (2005) |
| Population below poverty line: | 36.1% (2004) |
| Household income or consumption by percentage share: | lowest 10%: 3% highest 10%: 24.6% (2002) |
| Distribution of family income - Gini index: | 32.8 (2002) |
| Inflation rate (consumer prices): | 9.5% (2005 est.) |
| Budget: | revenues: $695.3 million expenditures: $634.5 million (2005) |
| Agriculture - products: | wheat, barley, vegetables, forage crops; sheep, goats, cattle, camels, horses |
| Industries: | construction and construction materials; mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, tin, tungsten, and gold); oil; food and beverages; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing |
| Industrial production growth rate: | 3% (2006 est.) |
| Electricity - production: | 3.43 billion kWh (2006) |
| Electricity - consumption: | 2.94 billion kWh (2006) |
| Electricity - exports: | 15.95 million kWh (2006) |
| Electricity - imports: | 125 million kWh (2006) |
| Oil - production: | 821.9 bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - consumption: | 11,220 bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - exports: | 821.9 bbl/day (2005 est.) |
| Oil - imports: | 12,280 bbl/day (2004 est.) |
| Oil - proved reserves: | 0 bbl (1 January 2006) |
| Exports: | $1.064 billion f.o.b. (2005) |
| Exports - commodities: | copper, apparel, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, other nonferrous metals |
| Exports - partners: | China 71.8%, Canada 11.7%, US 7.3% (2006) |
| Imports: | $1.184 billion c.i.f. (2005) |
| Imports - commodities: | machinery and equipment, fuel, cars, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, tea |
| Imports - partners: | Russia 29.8%, China 29.5%, Japan 11.9% (2006) |
| Debt - external: | $1.38 billion (2005) |
| Economic aid - recipient: | $211.9 million (2005) |
| Currency (code): | togrog/tugrik (MNT) |
| Exchange rates: | togrogs/tugriks per US dollar - 1,179.6 (2006), 1,205 (2005), 1,185.3 (2004), 1,146.5 (2003), 1,110.3 (2002) |
| Fiscal year: | calendar year |
Transportation
| Airports: | 44 (2007) |
| Airports - with paved runways: | total: 13 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 10 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2007) |
| Airports - with unpaved runways: | total: 31 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 23 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2007) |
| Heliports: | 1 (2007) |
| Railways: | total: 1,810 km broad gauge: 1,810 km 1.524-m gauge (2006) |
| Roadways: | total: 49,250 km paved: 1,724 km unpaved: 47,526 km (2002) |
| Waterways: | 580 km note: only waterway in operation is Lake Hovsgol (135 km); Selenge River (270 km) and Orhon River (175 km) are navigable but carry little traffic; lakes and rivers freeze in winter, are open from May to September (2004) |
| Merchant marine: | total: 73 ships (1000 GRT or over) 448,252 GRT/668,689 DWT by type: bulk carrier 12, cargo 52, chemical tanker 1, liquefied gas 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll on/roll off 5 foreign-owned: 62 (Bulgaria 2, China 3, Hong Kong 1, Japan 1, Lebanon 1, Malaysia 1, Russia 17, Singapore 12, Syria 1, Thailand 1, Ukraine 3, UAE 5, Vietnam 14) (2007) |
Military
| Military branches: | Mongolian Armed Forces: Mongolian People's Army (MPA), Mongolian People's Air Force (Agaaryn Dovtolgoonoos Khamgaalakh Tsergiyn Komandial, MPAF); there is no navy (2007) |
| Military service age and obligation: | 18-25 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 12 months in land or air defense forces or police; a small portion of Mongolian land forces (2.5 percent) is comprised of contract soldiers; women cannot be deployed overseas for military operations (2006) |
| Manpower available for military service: | males age 18-49: 736,182 females age 18-49: 734,679 (2005 est.) |
| Manpower fit for military service: | males age 18-49: 570,435 females age 18-49: 607,918 (2005 est.) |
| Manpower reaching military service age annually: | males age 18-49: 34,674 females age 18-49: 34,251 (2005 est.) |
| Military expenditures - percent of GDP: | 1.4% (2006) |
Transnational Issues
| Disputes - international: | none |
| Монгол улс Mongol uls Mongolia
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| Anthem "Монгол улсын төрийн дуулал" National anthem of Mongolia |
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| Capital (and largest city) |
Ulaanbaatar |
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| Official languages | Mongolian | |||||
| Government | Parliamentary republic | |||||
| - | President | Nambaryn Enkhbayar | ||||
| - | Prime minister | Miyeegombyn Enkhbold | ||||
| Formation | ||||||
| - | National Foundation Day | 1206 | ||||
| - | Independence from Qing Dynasty | December 29 1911 | ||||
| - | Mongolian People's Republic | November 24 1924 | ||||
| - | Democratic Mongolia | February 12 1992 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 0.6 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | July 2007 estimate | 2,951,786 [1] (139th) | ||||
| - | 2000 census | 2,407,500 [2] | ||||
| - | Density | 1.7/km² (227th) /sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2005 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $5.56 billion (147th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $2,175 (138th) | ||||
| HDI (2004) |  0.691 (medium) (116th) |
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| Currency | Tögrög (MNT) |
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| Time zone | (UTC+7 to +8[3][4]) | |||||
| Internet TLD | .mn | |||||
| Calling code | [[+976]] | |||||
Mongolia (IPA: /mɔn.goʊ.li.ə/) (Mongolian: Монгол улс) is a country typically classified as being a part of East Asia, although sometimes it is considered part of Central Asia, and the northern rim of historical Mongolia extends into North Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. Its capital and largest city is Ulaanbaatar.
Mongolia was the center of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century and was later ruled by the Qing Dynasty from the end of the seventeenth century until 1911, when an independent government was formed with Russian assistance. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed in 1924, leading to the adoption of communist policies and a close alignment to the Soviet Union. After the fall of communism in Mongolia in 1990, Mongolia adopted a new constitution which was ratified in 1992. This officially marked the transition of Mongolia to a multi-party political system. Mongolia's political system is parliamentary republic.
At 1,564,116 square kilometres, Mongolia is the nineteenth largest, and the least densely populated independent country in the world with a population of
around 2.9 million people. It is also the world's second-largest landlocked country
after Kazakhstan. The country contains very little arable
land as much of its area is covered by arid and unproductive steppes with mountains to the
north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Approximately thirty percent of the
country's 2.8 million people are nomadic or semi-nomadic.
The predominant religion in Mongolia is Tibetan Buddhism, and the majority of the
state's citizens are of the Mongol ethnicity, though
Buriats,
A large number of ethnicities have inhabited Mongolia since prehistoric times. Most of these people were nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the Xiongnu, were brought together to form a confederation by Modu Shanyu in 209 BC. They defeated the Donghu, who had previously been the dominant power in eastern Mongolia. The Xiongnu became the greatest threat to China for the following three centuries; the Great Wall of China was built partly as defence against the Xiongnu. Marshal Meng Tian of the Qin Empire dispersed more than 300,000 soldiers along the Great Wall to prevent an expected invasion from the North. It is believed that after their decisive defeat by the Chinese in AD 428–431, some of the Xiongnu migrated West to become the Huns. After the Xiongnu migrated west, Rouran, a close relative of the Mongols, came to power before being defeated by the Göktürks, who then dominated Mongolia for centuries.
During the seventh and eighth centuries, Mongolia was controlled by the Göktürks, who were succeeded by the ancestors of today's Uyghur and then by the Khitan and Jurchen. By the tenth century, the country was divided into numerous tribes linked through transient alliances.
In the late twelfth century, a chieftain named Temüjin united the Mongol tribes to the Naiman and Jurchen after a long struggle and took the name Genghis Khan. Beginning in 1206, Genghis Khan and his successors consolidated and expanded the Mongol Empire into the largest contiguous land empire in world history, going as far northwest as Kievan Rus.
After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was divided into four kingdoms, or "Khanates". One of these, the "Great Khanate," comprised the Mongol homeland and China, and its emperors were known as the Yuan Dynasty. Its founder, Kublai Khan, set up his centre in present day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan Dynasty was replaced by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, and the Mongol court fled north. The Ming armies pursued and defeated them in Mongolia, but were not able to conquer Mongolia. However, they were successful in sacking and destroying the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities in 1380. The Chinese wiped out the cultural progress of the Mongols achieved during the imperial period and Mongolia was thrown back to the primitive state until the renaissance of the 16th-17th centuries.
The Ming Emperor Yongle (1402-1424) mounted five military expeditions into Mongolia. The beginning of the 15th century is characterised by struggle for the throne between the Genghisid taiji and non-Genghisid nobles called taishi. The taishi were represented by the Oirad nobles whose success led to an ascendance of Esen Tayisi to power. To end the Chinese economic blockade and open up a trade with Ming Dynasty, Esen Tayisi raided China in 1449 and captured the Ming emperor at the Battle of Tumu. Shortly after death of Esen, the Genghisids dominated the power again. In 1466 Queen Mandihai the Wise installed a young boy Batumonhe, a descendant of Genghis Khan, on the throne and then she defeated the Oirad. Batumonhe Dayan Khan later eradicated the separatism of the taishi of Southern Mongolia. During the 16th century, Mongolia was split between the descendants of queen Manduhai into Khalkha, Chaharia, Tumet and other domains. The ruler of Tumet proclaimed himself as Altan Khan beside the legitimate Mongolian khan. Raiding China, he besieged Beijing in 1550 and reached peace with the Ming Dynasty. Altan Khan established the city of Hohhot in 1557. Upon meeting the Supreme Lama of Tibet in his domain in 1577, Altan Khan gave him title Dalai Lama and he became a convert to Tibetan Buddhism. At the same time ruler of Khalkha Abtai rushed to Tumet to meet the Dalai Lama. Thus, eventually most of the Mongolian rulers became Buddhists. Abtai Khan established Erdene Zuu monastery in 1586 at the site of the former city Karakorum.
The second half of the 15th and the 16th centuries saw the revival and flourishment of the Mongolian culture. Zanabazar (1635-1723), head of Buddhism in Khalkha, was a great master of the Buddhist art. He created the famous sculptures of Sita-Tara and Siyama-Tara, inspired by lively images of Mongolian women.
During the seventeenth century, the Manchu rose to prominence in the east. They conquered Inner Mongolia in 1636. The Khalkha submitted in 1691, bringing all but the west of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing Dynasty. For the next two centuries, the Manchu maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures.
With the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia declared independence in 1911. The new country's territory was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia. The 49 hoshuns of Inner Mongolia as well as the Mongolians of the Alashan and Qinghai regions expressed their willingness to join the young Mongol Khanate. After the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by Xu Shuzheng occupied the capital in 1919. The Chinese dominance did not last: notorious Russian adventurer "Bloody" Baron Ungern who had fought with the "Whites" (Ataman Semyonov) against the Red army in Siberia, led his troops into Mongolia and forced a showdown with the Chinese in Niislel Khüree. Ungern's forces triumphed, and he briefly in effect ruled Mongolia under the blessing of religious leader Bogd Khan. But Ungern's triumph was shortlived; he was chased out by the Red Army, which, while at it, liberated Mongolia from feudalism and ensured its political alignment with the Russian Bolsheviks. In 1924, after the death of the religious leader and king Bogd Khan, a Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed with support from the Soviets.
The Mongolian People's Republic was aligned closely with the Soviet Union. During the 1920s and 1930s, several high-ranking politicians who demanded a more independent course, like Dogsomyn Bodoo or Khorloogiin Dandzan, fell victim to violent power struggles and were killed. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. Under his administration, forced collectivisation of livestock was instituted, and the destruction of Buddhist monasteries and Stalinist purges beginning 1937 left more than 30,000 people dead.
During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the USSR defended Mongolia against Japan. Mongolian forces also took part in the Soviet offensive against Japanese forces in Inner Mongolia in August 1945 (see Operation August Storm). The (Soviet) threat of Mongolian forces seizing parts of Inner Mongolia induced the Republic of China to recognize Outer Mongolia's independence, provided that a referendum was held. The referendum took place on October 20 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries re-recognized each other on October 6, 1949. The communist rule also undertook the Mongolia's enemies of the people persecution resulting in the murder of monks and other people.
After Choibalsan died in Moscow on January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power. In 1956 and again in 1962, Choibalsan's personality cult was condemned. Mongolia continued to align itself closely with the Soviet Union, especially after the Sino-Soviet split of the late 1950s. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh.
The introduction of perestroika and glasnost in the USSR by Mikhail Gorbachev strongly influenced Mongolian politics even though Mongolia was a sovereign nation. The collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, combined with these two policies, were enough to lead to the peaceful Democratic Revolution of 1990. This, in turn allowed Mongolia to begin engaging in economic and diplomatic relations with the Western world. The nation finished its transition from a communist state to a multi-party capitalist democracy with the ratification of a new constitution in 1992.
Government of Mongolia is characterized as a parliamentary democracy, which is governed under the Constitution of Mongolia that guarantees full freedom of expression, rights, worship and others. As a result, media in Mongolia is totally free with a public television and no government news paper and all being privately owned. Mongolia has two main parties among many other parties. Until June 27, 2004, the predominant party in Mongolia was the social democratic Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or abbreviated as the MPRP, a former communist party during the socialist republics. The main opposition party was the Democratic Party or DP, which controlled a governing coalition from 1996 to 2000.
From 2000 to 2004, the MPRP was back in power, but results of the 2004 elections required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in Mongolia between the MPRP and MDC (Motherland Democratic Coalition). The coalition broke down in January 2006, the current government has been formed with the MPRP, some small parties and some DP defectors.
Mongolia's president has a symbolic role, but can block the parliament's decisions, who can then overrule the veto by a 2/3 majority. Mongolia's Constitution provides three requirements for taking office as President: the individual must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years of age, and have resided in Mongolia for five years prior to taking office. The current President is Nambaryn Enkhbayar.
Mongolia uses a unicameral parliamentary system in which the president has a symbolic role and the government chosen by the legislature exercises executive power. The legislative arm, the State Great Khural, has one chamber with 76 seats and is chaired by the speaker of the house. It elects its members every four years by general elections. The State Great Khural is powerful in the Mongolian government with the president being largely symbolic and the prime minister being confirmed from the parliament.
The Prime Minister of Mongolia is elected by the State Great Khural. The current prime minister is Miyeegombyn Enkhbold, who was elected by fifty-six votes to ten on January 25 2006. The deputy prime minister is Mendsaikhan Enkhsaikhan (since 28 January 2006). There are other prime ministers of each department like finance, defense, labor, agriculture, etc. and those offices constitute the prime minister's cabinet.
The cabinet is nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the president and confirmed by the State Great Khural.
Mongolia maintains positive relations and has diplomatic missions with many countries such as the United States, Russia, North and South Korea, Japan, the People's Republic of China. The government has focused a great deal on encouraging foreign investments and trade. Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq and Afghanistan. Also 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on an UN mandate to protect the UN's special court set up there. From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxemburgian contingent in Kosovo. On November 21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. President to visit Mongolia.[5]
Mongolia has embassies in Almaty, Ankara, Bangkok, Berlin, Beijing, Brussels,
