1853 - 1907

Fifth monarch of Persia's Qajar dynasty.

Mozaffar al-Din became shah in 1897, after his father Naser al-Din Shah was slain by an assassin's bullet. Mozaffar had lived in Tabriz in Azerbaijan, the traditional seat of the heir to the throne. He was of a timid but kindly nature and had been overshadowed and humiliated by forceful pishkars (ministers of Azerbaijan), appointed by his father, so he had little experience of statecraft upon his accession. His father had radiated an aura of royalty, although he had become despotic and unpopular toward the end of his reign.

The courtiers who came with the new shah to Tehran were greedy for the spoils of office they had long awaited; politics and court intrigues undermined the shah's authority and prestige. Mozaffar al-Din Shah's reign began badly, since Anglo-Russian rivalry was at its worst, compromising Persia's independence both financially and politically. A deep dissatisfaction among all the classes gave rise to widespread nationalism. The shah allowed some freedom of political discussion and activity, which soon resulted in the formation of political societies (anjomans), where reforms were discussed and contacts between various leaders were established. The printing and distribution of political tracts caused politics to be discussed and the government criticized.

Mozaffar al-Din Shah dismissed his father's unpopular minister, Amin al-Soltan, and appointed the liberal-minded Amin al-Dowleh, whose efforts to negotiate a much-needed loan from a neutral country failed. The shah recalled him and negotiated instead two loans from Russia at onerous terms. The monies were soon spent on trivialities during the shah's European trips in 1900, 1902, and 1905. These journeys were criticized and made him unpopular with the merchants, who resented the concessions granted to non-Persians; with the ulama (body of mollas), who were afraid of Western cultural influence; and with the liberals who feared a threat to Persia's independence. All the while, growing inflation and lawlessness weakened the central government. The dismissal of Amin al-Soltan and the appointment of the more autocratic Ayn alDowleh only exacerbated the situation.

Another cause of great resentment was the employment of Belgian customs officials at the borders, the proceeds of which were pledged as a guarantee against the loans from Russia and Britain. Naus, the director, was particularly hated; it was no coincidence that a photo of him, wearing the habit of a religious man to a costume party, was distributed with other propaganda by the opponents of the regime, to show the disrespect that foreigners had for the religious class. This was the spark that triggered the revolution in 1904. The first demands were for law and a House of Justice (AdalatKhaneh), formulated by those merchants and ulama who took bast (sanctuary) in the Shrine of Shah Abd al-Azim in 1904. The shah agreed to their demands but took no real action; therefore a protest began that took the life of a religious student. As a result the ulama left Tehran in a body for Qom, and 14,000 merchants gathered at the British embassy. Their demands included the granting of a constitution and a national constituent assembly (a majlese shura-ye melli). The shah reluctantly agreed, and the preparation of the constitutional laws and the promulgation of electoral laws were accomplished quickly. The elections were rushed since the shah was ill, and it was feared that his successor, Mohammad Ali Mirza, might not continue his father's new policies. The electoral law was so devised that Tehran was purposely to receive half the 120 seats. In fact, Mozaffar al-Din Shah died a few months after he made the October 1906 inaugural speech in the majles.

Since the events of the succeeding reign confirmed the fears of the people, Persia was to face a long period of political turmoil. Mozaffar al-Din is therefore remembered with reverence, and those who built the entrance to the majles adorned it with the motto: "Adl-e Mozaffar" (The justice of Mozaffar), which was left untouched even after the change of dynasty in 1925.

Bibliography

Avery, Peter. Modern Iran. New York: Praeger, 1965.

Browne, Edward G. The Persian Revolution of 1905 - 1909

(1910). Washington, DC: Mage Publishers, 1995.

Kazemzadeh, F. Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864 - 1914: A Study in Imperialism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968.

— MANSOUREH ETTEHADIEH

Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. Copyright © 2004 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.