Charles Taylor

• Born: 28 January 1948
• Birthplace: Arthington, Liberia
• Best Known As: The president of Liberia who was tried for war crimes

Charles Taylor was the president of Liberia from August of 1997 until August of 2003, when he stepped down amid accusations of war crimes. The son of an Americo-Liberian and a Gola tribe member, Taylor was educated in the United States and earned a degree in economics in 1977 from Bentley College in Waltham, Massachusetts. As national chairman for the Union of Liberian Associations (ULA), Taylor was a vocal opponent of Liberia's president William Tolbert in the late 1970s, but returned to Liberia in 1980 at Tolbert's request. A few months later Tolbert was murdered in a coup by Samuel K. Doe, and Taylor got a position in Doe's administration directing government purchasing. In May of 1983 Taylor was removed from his post and accused of embezzling nearly a million dollars. He fled to the U.S., where he was arrested in May of 1984 and detained while awaiting extradition. In September of 1985 Taylor escaped from jail and made his way back to Africa, where he spent the next four years building an armed force. In December of 1989 Taylor and his National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) returned to Liberia and joined forces with Prince Johnson to overthrow Doe. Johnson and Taylor had an uneasy alliance, however, and after Johnson took control of Monrovia in 1990 and executed Doe, a civil war ensued.

A peace agreement was reached in 1995-96, and Taylor was elected president in 1997 by a wide margin. During his presidency he battled rebellion from within and criticism from without for his domestic policies and his role in backing violent rebels in neighboring Sierra Leone. In June of 2003 a United Nations tribunal indicted Taylor on 17 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, and in July U.S. president George W. Bush publicly called for Taylor to resign the presidency. Taylor resigned 11 August 2003 and left Vice President Moses Blah in charge, as Liberia prepared for new elections. Nigeria provided Taylor asylum and refused international calls for his arrest and trial. Nigerian president Olusegun Obasanjo agreed in 2006 to return Taylor to Liberia. Taylor tried to leave Nigeria, but on 29 March 2006 he was caught trying to cross the border into Cameroon. A few days later, before a war crimes court in Sierra Leone, Taylor was charged with 11 counts of crimes against humanity. His trial, organized by the United Nations and held in The Hague, The Netherlands, began 4 June 2007 and ran through all of 2008 and into 2009.

Taylor is, of course, no relation to Charles "Chuck" Taylor, who created the Converse tennis shoe of that name.

Taylor, Charles A[lonzo] (1864?–1942), producer and playwright. Born in South Hadley, Massachusetts, he is said to have run away from home after reading about the life of P. T. Barnum. Taylor tried a number of odd jobs before writing his first play. Within a short time he was a successful turn‐of‐the‐century producer and author of cheap touring blood‐and‐thunder melodramas, many of which were written for his wife, Laurette Taylor. His titles included The Escape from Chinatown, Escape from the Harem, From Rags to Riches, and Stolen by Gypsies. Biography: Blood and Thunder, Dwight Taylor, 1962.

president

Personal Information

Born Charles McArthur Ghankay Taylor, January 28, 1948, in Arthington, Liberia; son of Nelson (a teacher, sharecropper, and lawyer), and Zoe Taylor; married, wife's name, Tupee; seven children.
Education: Attended Chamberlayne Junior College; Bentley College, B.A., 1977.
Politics: National Patriotic Front (NPFL) of Liberia.
Religion: Baptist.

Career

Worked as a security guard, mechanic, and truck driver in Boston, MA, 1970s; General Services Agency (Liberian interior government ministry), director, 1980-83; served as deputy minister of commerce and industry, 1983; leader of the National Patriotic Front (NPFL) of Liberia, late 1980s; elected president of Liberia, July, 1997.

Life's Work

In July of 1997, the people of Liberia overwhelmingly elected Charles Taylor to serve as president of their war-torn country. The former guerrilla leader gained support from over 75 percent of voters in an election that international observers described as fair. Taylor is often regarded by the international community as one of the instigators of a bloody civil war that lasted seven years, claimed 200,000 lives, created one million refugees, and shattered a once-prosperous nation. However, Taylor appeared to enjoy widespread popular support and has a long history of political activism.

Charles Taylor was born in 1948 in Arthington, near Liberia's capital of Monrovia. For decades Liberia, considered West Africa's first independent republic, enjoyed a reputation as a stable country with a robust economy. It also seemed to be free of the ethnic rivalries and colonial tensions that marked the political landscape elsewhere in Africa. Ninety-five percent of the population belonged to one of several ethnic groups, while the other five percent, known as Americo-Liberians, dominated the country's politics and economy. The Americo-Liberians were descendants of Liberia's original nineteenth-century settlers, who founded the country as a homeland for freed American slaves. Eventually, the majority of Liberians began to resent the Americo- Liberians for their discriminatory attitudes and refusal to share power. It was this resentment that sowed the seeds of Liberia's civil war and paved the way for Taylor's emergence to power.

Taylor was only half Americo-Liberian; his mother was from the Gola tribe. He was one of several children in the family, and his father was alternately a teacher, sharecropper, lawyer, and local judge. He was raised in Clay-Ashland, outside Monrovia, and as a teen was expelled from private preparatory school. Taylor had long been captivated by the history of New England because many freed slaves had left on ships from New Bedford, Massachusetts to colonize Liberia. He received a student visa to study in the United States and arrived in the Boston area in 1972. Taylor enrolled at Chamberlayne Junior College and worked as a security guard, truck driver, and mechanic to support himself. He later transferred to Bentley College in Waltham, Massachusetts and graduated with a degree in economics in 1977.

During his years in the United States, Taylor became active in the Union of Liberian Associations and eventually rose to the post of national chairperson. When Liberian President William Tolbert visited the United States in 1979, Taylor led a noisy demonstration outside the Liberian mission in New York City to protest Tolbert's policies. Tolbert invited Taylor into the mission for a debate. The articulate Taylor easily won the debate and announced that he was taking over the mission. He was arrested and spent a few days in jail, but Tolbert refused to press charges. Instead, the president invited Taylor and four other Union activists to return to Liberia in the spring of 1980. Tolbert provided them with spending money and a car and hoped to win their support.

In April of 1980, shortly after Taylor's arrival, Tolbert was murdered during a military coup led by army sergeant Samuel K. Doe. Doe declared himself president, becoming the first indigenous Liberian to lead the country. In the weeks following the coup, there was a great deal of bloodshed as many Liberians attempted to settle scores with the Americo-Liberians. Doe quickly suspended the constitution and declared martial law. Many Americo-Liberians, fearing for their lives, fled the country.

Taylor, with his articulateness and political experience, soon became a key player in Doe's government. Due to his background in economics, he was chosen to head the General Services Agency, the purchasing agency of the Liberian government. Taylor controlled disbursements to other parts of government and, in 1983, he was accused of approving transfers of funds from the Ministry of Finance to a New Jersey company called International Earthmoving Equipment. The company, which never sent any equipment to Liberia, had a zero balance in its U.S. bank account before this transfer, and investigators eventually traced further transfers out of this account into Taylor's own Citibank account. Taylor was removed from his post in May of 1983 and he fled to the United States in October.

The Liberian government accused Taylor of embezzlement and a warrant was issued for Taylor's arrest and extradition. In May of 1984, he was arrested by U.S. federal agents in Massachusetts and spent sixteen months in the Plymouth House of Corrections. In September of 1985, Taylor and four other inmates escaped from the jail. Although the three other inmates were recaptured, Taylor remained at large. "For years the law enforcement community has been awash with rumors that someone, perhaps in the U.S. intelligence services, might have winked at Taylor's escape and even helped his career as a rebel," reported David L. Marcus of the Boston Globe in 1997. However, Marcus noted, there was no concrete evidence to support such claims.

Following his escape, Taylor simply vanished. It was suspected that he made his way to Libya and was sheltered there by Muammar Qaddafi, one the most bitter enemies of the United States. On Christmas Eve of 1989, Taylor resurfaced as the leader of an invasion force of mercenaries and Liberian refugees who crossed into Liberia from the Sierra Leone border. His National Patriotic Front (NPFL), estimated at only 150 to 500 men, declared war on Doe's regime, and easily won victories in Liberia's rural countryside. The NPFL set up headquarters in Gbarnga, and enjoyed the support of a large number of Liberians dissatisfied with Doe's regime. At first the U.S. State Department also lent tacit support to Taylor, finding the American-educated activist preferable to Doe.

By July of 1990, Taylor's NPFL forces had entered Monrovia. However, a faction within the NPFL led by Prince Johnson broke with Taylor and captured significant sections of city for themselves. A peacekeeping force comprised of troops from other West African nations had also arrived, but they were soon drawn into the fighting. The battle for Monrovia continued and many Liberians were killed, including Taylor's own father. In September of 1990, both factions of the NPFL declared victory over Doe's forces. Doe was captured while trying to flee Monrovia and was executed.

For the next few years, Liberia's civil war continued between the Taylor and Johnson factions of the NPFL. Taylor still controlled most of Liberia's rural areas from his Gbarnga headquarters. Both sides were accused of committing atrocities and recruiting children for their militias. In 1992, Taylor's NPFL forces were blamed for the vicious murder of five American nuns at a rural mission.

In 1993, a cease-fire was declared and former U.S. president Jimmy Carter agreed to broker peace talks in Nigeria designed to end the Liberian civil war. In August of 1995, Taylor and the NPFL forces under his command made a triumphant return to Monrovia, where thousands greeted him in the streets. A six-member ruling council was set up to help restore democracy to Liberia.

The other political factions within Liberia did not wield nearly as much influence as the NPFL. With a presidential election scheduled for the summer of 1997, Taylor benefitted greatly from owning the country's most powerful radio station, which he had captured during the early weeks of the civil war. Also, unlike his opponents, Taylor could afford to pay for an extensive billboard campaign that plastered his picture throughout Liberia. Since roughly 65 percent of Liberia's population is illiterate, all ballots have a photograph of each candidate. Therefore, Taylor's billboard campaign made his face much more recognizable to voters than those of other candidates.

Taylor won the presidential election with 75.3 percent of the vote in balloting monitored by international observers. In the first weeks of his administration, Taylor won praise from the international community by putting a policy of national reconciliation in place, and handing key positions in the administration to non-NPFL leaders. As for the abuses of the civil war, Taylor told New Yorker writer Jon Lee Anderson, "I have already apologized to the Liberian people. I have asked for their forgiveness, and I have also forgiven them.... Wars are terrible wherever they are, and things happen you cannot account for."

Liberia faced many severe problems despite the return of peace, including a shattered economy, massive foreign debt, and roads, buildings, and bridges destroyed by years of fighting. Taylor has also been accused of plundering Liberia's rich natural resources. The New Yorker's Anderson reported that Liberia's forests are being felled at an incredibly alarming rate, possibly through the use of forced labor. Taylor's administration also faces a serious political threat from the huge number of disabled veterans of the civil war, many of whom are unable to find work or receive medical and rehabilitative care. Many of these veterans are among Taylor's sharpest critics.

In February of 1998, Taylor visited the United States and spoke at a church with the Reverend Jesse Jackson. He is the father of several children, and lives in the heavily-fortified presidential compound outside Monrovia. He enjoys playing basketball and tennis to keep fit.

Further Reading

• Boston Globe, September 24, 1985, p. 28; July 31, 1990, p. 1; May 26, 1997, p. 1; May 27, 1997, p. 12; August 14, 1997, p. A1.
• Insight on the News, August 25, 1997, p. 21.
• Los Angeles Times, June 2, 1990, p. A6.
• New Yorker, July 27, 1998, pp. 34-43.
• Washington Post, August 10, 1997, p. C4.

— Carol Brennan

Taylor, Charles (1931- ) Canadian philosopher. Taylor was educated at McGill University and Oxford, where he gained his PhD in 1961, and where he has also taught. A wide-ranging philosopher, Taylor has written extensively on ethics, politics, and the social sciences. His most influential book is Sources of the Self (1989), a criticism of Enlightenment views of the self which stand in the way of our understanding our experience as moral agents. Like Macintyre, Taylor draws on Aristotelian and communitarian themes to rectify the deficiencies of modernism. Other works include Hegel (1975) and The Ethics of Authenticity (1991).

Myron C. Taylor
Portrait of Myron C. Taylor painted by Frank O. Salisbury, which hung in the foyer of Myron Taylor Hall beside a portrait of Taylor's wife. (date unknown)
Born	Myron Charles Taylor January 18, 1874(1874-01-18) Lyons, New York, United States
Died	May 5, 1959 (aged 85) 16 East 70th Street New York City, New York, United States
Occupation	Diplomacy, Finance, Industrialist, Philanthropy
Religious beliefs	Episcopal
Spouse(s)	Anabele S. Mack
Parents	William Delling Taylor and Mary (née Underhill) Taylor

Myron Charles Taylor (January 18, 1874 — May 5, 1959) was one of the major figures in American life during the first half of the twentieth century. He was probably America's leading industrialist, and later a key diplomatic figure at the hub of many of the most-important geopolitical events before, during, and after World War II.

In addition he was a philanthropist giving generously to his alma mater, Cornell University, and a number of other causes.

Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Career 2.1 Early career 2.2 Amassing his fortune 2.3 U.S. Steel 2.4 Diplomat 2.4.1 International Affairs 2.4.2 Personal envoy to Pope Pius XII 3 Awards 4 Retirement 5 Philanthropy and Charitable Activity 6 Death 7 Notes 8 References 9 See also

Early life and education

He war born in Lyons, New York, to William Delling Taylor and Mary (née Underhill) Taylor. His father owned and operated a tannery business.

Taylor graduated from the Cornell Law School of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, in 1894.

Career

Early career

He returned to Lyons and for the next five years struggled to establish a small-town law practice. He also twice ran for the New York State Assembly as a Democrat, and both times was defeated.

Amassing his fortune

In 1900, Taylor left Lyons to join his brother William Taylor^{[clarification needed]} (Cornell, A.B., class of 1891) on Wall Street in New York City, New York. His focus turned to corporate law and his legal career began to flourish.

Taylor won a U.S. government contract for mail pouches and related products. He quickly exploited this lucrative business and began not only to introduce innovations such as the transparent "window" in envelopes through which an address is displayed, but also to buy up competitors.^{[clarification needed]}

His efforts expanded to the cotton markets, identifying opportunities to acquire struggling cotton mills, transform their labor practices, and modernize their technology. This approach later became known as the "Taylor Formula".

Seeing the potential of the infant automotive industry, he established a textile firm that became the leading supplier of combined tire fabric. During World War I his plants became the leading suppliers to the American military effort. Following the war he saw a boom-bust cycle coming and disposed of all his interests in the mills.

U.S. Steel

With his now-sizable fortune he could have retired, but at the urging of two leading Wall Street bankers — J.P. Morgan (also one of the founders of United States Steel) and George F. Baker — Taylor was recruited to help turn around the finances of U.S. Steel, once the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world.^{[clarification needed]} On September 15, 1925, he was elected a director and member of its powerful finance committee. He became the committee's chairman in 1929. From March 29, 1932, until April 5, 1938, he was U.S. Steel's chairman and chief executive officer.

During the desperate years of the Great Depression, he applied the Taylor Formula again — closing or selling plants; reorganizing the corporate structure; and upgrading and modernizing the company's operations and technology.

One defining moment occurred in 1937, when Taylor struck a deal with John L. Lewis who, at the time, was head of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Through the deal, U.S. Steel agreed to recognize a CIO subsidiary for purposes of representing and organizing U.S. Steel workers. U.S. Steel became the first major industrial corporation to take this historic step. The basis for the deal later became known as the Myron Taylor Labor Formula, defining how to bring about labor stability and long-term prosperity for the company:

The Company recognizes the right of its employees to bargain collectively through representatives freely chosen by them without dictation, coercion or intimidation in any form or from any source. It will negotiate and contract with the representatives of any group of its employees so chosen and with any organization as the representative of its members, subject to the recognition of the principle that the right to work is not dependent on membership or non-membership in any organization and subject to the right of every employee freely to bargain in such manner and through such representatives, if any, as he chooses

Taylor was a looming presence over the affairs of U.S. Steel, leaving an indelible mark on its history. He soon was featured on the covers of or in articles in Time^[1], Fortune, Business Week, The New Yorker, and The Saturday Evening Post. He did not officially retire from the board until January 12, 1956.^{[clarification needed]}

Diplomat

International Affairs

In July 1938 he represented the U.S. at the Évian Conference, in Évian-les-Bains, France, convened at the initiative of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to discuss the issue of increasing numbers of Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi persecution leading up to the onset of World War II. Before German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler turned to mass extermination of Jews by way of The Holocaust, the possibility of having refugees sent to willing countries was posed. Sumner Welles, the U.S. Under Secretary of State had proposed an international conference to address the immigration issue.^{[clarification needed]} Going into the conference Roosevelt gave Taylor the instruction: "All you need to do is get these people together." Taylor was appointed chairman, and while he was not able to get concessions on immigration, a proposal to create the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees was approved.

Personal envoy to Pope Pius XII

Main article: Foreign relations of Pope Pius XII

On December 22, 1939, Roosevelt asked Taylor "to take on a special mission for me"^{[citation needed]} — to be Roosevelt's "personal envoy" to Pope Pius XII. Taylor's appointment was announced on December 23, 1939, and confirmed in Rome, Italy,^{[clarification needed]} on February 28, 1940.^[2]Taylor served from 1940 throughout the rest of Roosevelt's presidency (his death in 1945) and continued as President Harry S. Truman's "personal envoy" until 1950.

Although appointed as a "Peace Ambassador"^[3] and "personal envoy",^[4] Taylor was extended Ambassador status by the Holy See on February 13, 1940.^[5]

His appointment to that diplomatic position was officially protested by many American Protestant Christian denominations, including Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Baptists and Seventh-day Adventists.^[6]

He left Rome on September 22, 1941, flying to Lisbon, Portugal, and London, United Kingdom, on the way back to the U.S.^[7][8] Initially his direction^{[clarification needed]} was to prevent Italy from joining the war with Germany. Later he would be influential in urging limited bombing of Rome in 1943-1944 by the Allies of World War II, and then to only specific military targets. Harold J. Tittmann, Jr. remained as chargé d'affaires after Taylor's departure, and was required to move from Italy^{[clarification needed]} into Vatican City on December 13, 1941.^[9] Taylor arrived again in Rome in September 1942, but returned in October.^{[clarification needed][10][11]}

In the summer of 1942, Taylor went on his most-signifiant mission yet. He was asked to convey to the Pope that the U.S. would win the war and there would be no peace without victory. Another accomplishment of this trip was to influence the Pope to speak out in the atrocities being perpetuated against the Jews.

Taylor was also successful in persuading Spain's military general and dictator Francisco Franco not to join the Axis powers of World War II. Later he was able to lobby for an Allied military airbase in neutral Portugal that was ultimately granted.

As the war approached its end and afterwards, Taylor recognized the Italian people were in dire need of necessities. He established American Relief for Italy, an organization that became the primary means to provide food, clothing and medicine to millions of suffering Italians. In a short time approximately US$6 million in public funds were raised and over $37 million in relief supplies were distributed.

Taylor intended to step down after the war ended, but following Roosevelt's death he agreed to stay on and to help Truman. Truman charged Taylor to work "not only with the Pope but with other leaders in the spiritual world and in the world of politics and secular affairs as he travels through Europe in the fulfillment of his mission." For the next four years he travelled throughout Europe to get helpful Cold War information to which no other westerner had access, and to shore up opposition by the church to the Soviet Union.

Taylor resigned in January 1950, after which Truman recalled his assistant Franklin C. Gowan, prompting speculation that U.S.-Vatican^{[clarification needed]} ties (strongly opposed by many Protestant leaders) would end.^[12] Although there were interim informal diplomacy assignement, the U.S. did not appoint an official U.S. Ambassador to the Holy See until 1984.

Awards

On December 20, 1948, Truman awarded Taylor the Presidential Medal for Merit — one of the highest civilian decoration of the U.S. awarded to civilians for exceptionally meritorious conduct. He was also named a Knight of the Order of Pius IX, First Degree.^{[clarification needed]}

Retirement

In early 1950^{[clarification needed]} Taylor officially retired.

His country home in Locust Valley, New York, was situated on the site of a farm started by a Colonial ancestor, Captain John Underhill.^[13] After the Underhill house was damaged in a fire, he did not tear it down. Instead, he encased it in a new façade designed by the architect Harriet Lindeberg. Taylor took an active interest in Underhill — placing a marker at the entrance to the Underhill Burying Ground in 1953 and creating an endowment to assist with the perpetual maintenance. The marker reads: "Erected by Myron C. Taylor in honor of his mother Mary Morgan Underhill Taylor, 1953".

Philanthropy and Charitable Activity

Taylor gave $1.5 million in 1928 to Cornell University for the construction of a new building complex for its Cornell Law School and Law Library. The new space allowed the library five floors of stacks for over 200,000 volumes.

The dedication was in the Moot Court Room on October 15, 1932, with a buffet luncheon in the Reading Room following. Taylor and his wife Anable C. Taylor presented the keys to the hall to then-Cornell University President Livingston Farrand.^[14]

Among his last-remaining projects after his retirement was overseeing his 1949 gift to Cornell to build a $1.5 million structure adjoining its Law School (which he had also helped to build). The new building, Anabel Taylor Hall, was named in his wife's honor and built to serve as an interdenominational religious center. Funds from Taylor also went toward the establishment of the Myron Taylor Lectures on Foreign Affairs, and for the Charles Evans Hughes residence center.

Myron and Anabel Taylor contributed several items to the The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, or owned artwork that was later given by another collector. Among these items include:

• a statuette of the god Anubis as embalmer, Ptolemaic Period, circa 332-30 B.C. (given by Mr. and Mrs. Myron Taylor in 1938)
• Bouquet of Chrysanthemums, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1881 (purchased by Taylor by 1937, sold in 1961 to Annenberg, bequest to The Met in 2002).

Death

Taylor quietly lived out his final years, never seeking public accolades or recognition. When his wife died on December 12, 1958, he lost his raison d'etre^{[citation needed]} and he died five months later on May 5, 1959, at his home in New York City at age 85.

Truman paid tribute noting, "The Honorable Myron C. Taylor performed great services for both me and my predecessor in the White House to the Vatican at a time when it was essential that the United States be represented in that quarter. Undoubtedly, no one could have performed the job as well as he did... All of this should be deeply grateful for the unselfish works of this fine man and able public servant."

Leaders in government, finance and industry were among the 200 people who attended the funeral service at his home on 16 East Seventieth Street. Honorary pallbearers included Welles; Deane Waldo Malott, president of Cornell University; Roger M. Blough, chairman of U.S. Steel; and Benjamin F. Fairless and Irving S. Olds, former chairmen of U.S. Steel.

Four clergymen, led by the Right Rev. Horace W.B. Donegan, Protestant Episcopal Bishop of New York, participated in the service held in the music room of the residence.

Notes

1. ^ Cover - Volume XIII, Number 16, April 22, 1929, Time magazine. Time Magazine Archive online module at time.com/time/covers Accessed August 20, 2009.
2. ^ Camile M. Cianfarra. December 20, 1949. "Taylor to Resign Vatican Post Soon". The New York Times. p. 24.
3. ^ The New York Times. December 24, 1939. "Envoy to Vatican Ends 72-Year Gap". p. 12.
4. ^ The New York Times. May 4, 1946. "Taylor Returning to Vatican as Personal Envoy of President". p. 8.
5. ^ The New York Times. February 14, 1940. "Diplomatic Rank for Taylor Seen". p. 11.
6. ^ "Pope to Get Jerusalem?" Monday, July 8, 1940. Time magazine
7. ^ The New York Times. September 23, 1941. "Taylor Flies to Lisbon". p. 8.
8. ^ The New York Times. September 27, 1941. "Taylor Is in London on Way Back to U.S.". p. 5.
9. ^ The New York Times. December 14, 1941. "U.S. Envoy in Vatican". p. 8.
10. ^ The New York Times. September 30, 1942. "Taylor Confers in Spain". p. 12.
11. ^ The New York Times. October 4, 1942. "Taylor Arrives in London". p. 20.
12. ^ Camile M. Cianfarra. January 20, 1950. "Truman Recalls Gowan, Taylor's Assistant; Possible End to U.S. Ties Disturbs Vatican". The New York Times. p. 12.
13. ^ "Myron Taylor Dies; Ex-Envoy to Vatican". The New York Times. May 7, 1959.
14. ^ Who Was Myron Taylor? and, Who Was Charles Evans Hughes?, The Tower, December 5, 1996

References

• Curtiss, W. David and Stewart, Evan, Cornell Benefactor, Industrial Czar, and FDR's "Ambassador Extraordinary

See also

• Foreign relations of Pope Pius XII
• United States Ambassador to the Holy See
• United States Steel

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)