| Nicolaus Copernicus |

Portrait from Toruń, early 16th century |
| Born |
February 19 1473(1473--),
Toruń (Thorn), Royal Prussia, Poland. |
| Died |
May 24 1543 (aged 70),
Frombork (Frauenburg), Warmia, Poland
|
| Field |
Mathematician, astronomer, jurist, physician, classical scholar,
Catholic cleric, governor, administrator, military commander, diplomat, economist |
| Alma mater |
Kraków University, Bologna
University, University of Padua, University of Ferrara. |
| Known for |
Heliocentrism |
| Religion |
Roman Catholic |
Nicolaus Copernicus (February 19, 1473 –
May 24, 1543) was the first European astronomer to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology, and displaced the Earth from its center. His epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial
Spheres), is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy,
as well as a defining epiphany in the history of
science.
Although Greek, Indian, and Muslim savants, centuries before Copernicus, had published
heliocentric hypotheses, Copernicus's publication of a scientific theory of heliocentrism,
demonstrating that the Sun is at the center of what is now called the solar system, was a landmark in the history of modern science.
Among the great polymaths of the Scientific
Revolution and the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, jurist, physician, classical scholar, Catholic cleric, governor, administrator, military leader, diplomat and economist. Amid his extensive responsibilities, astronomy
figured as little more than an avocation—yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.
Life
Nicolaus Copernicus was born in 1473 in the city of Toruń (Thorn) in the
Royal Prussia region of the Kingdom of
Poland.[1] He was educated at Kraków, Bologna, Padua and Ferrara, and spent most of his working life within the prince-bishopric
of Warmia (Ermeland), in the town of Frombork
(Frauenburg), where he died in 1543.
Childhood
Nicolaus Copernicus' father — a wealthy businessman, copper trader, and respected citizen of
Toruń — died when Nicolaus was ten years old. Little is known of Nicolaus' mother, Barbara Watzenrode, except that she was born
into a rich merchant family and appears to have predeceased her husband. After the elder Copernicus' death, Nicolaus' maternal
uncle, Lucas Watzenrode, a church canon and later Prince-Bishop governor of the Archbishopric of Warmia, reared Nicolaus and his three siblings. The uncle's position
facilitated Nicolaus' pursuit of a career within the church, enabling him to devote much time to his astronomy studies.
Copernicus had a brother and two sisters:
Education
In 1491 Copernicus enrolled at the Kraków Academy (now Jagiellonian
University), where he probably first encountered astronomy with Professor Albert
Brudzewski. Astronomy soon fascinated him, and he began collecting a large library on the subject. Copernicus' library
would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during "the Deluge" and is now at
the Uppsala University Library.
After four years in Kraków, followed by a brief stay back home in Toruń, Copernicus went to study law and medicine at the universities of Bologna
and Padua.
Copernicus' uncle financed his education and hoped that Copernicus too would become a bishop.
Copernicus, however, while studying canon and civil
law at Bologna, met the famous astronomer, Domenico Maria Novara da
Ferrara. Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that
Copernicus made in 1497, together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.
In 1497 Copernicus' uncle was ordained Bishop of Warmia, and Copernicus was
named a canon at Frombork Cathedral, but he waited in Italy for the great
Jubilee of 1500. Copernicus went to Rome, where he
observed a lunar eclipse and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics.
He would thus have visited Frombork only in 1501. As soon as he arrived, he requested and obtained permission to complete his
studies in Padua, where he studied medicine (with Guarico and Fracastoro), including
astrological medicine, and at Ferrara, where in 1503 he received his doctorate in
canon law. It has been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from
Cicero and Plato about opinions of the ancients on the movement of
the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. In 1504 Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas
pertinent to his theory.
Work
Having left Italy at the end of his studies, he came to live and work at Frombork. Some time
before his return to Warmia, he received a position at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocław (Breslau), Silesia, Bohemia, which he
held for many years and only resigned for health reasons shortly before his death. Through the rest of his life, he performed
astronomical observations and calculations, but only as time permitted and never in a professional capacity.
Coin reform
-
Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian Diet, with Albert, Duke of Prussia and advised the
Polish king Sigismund I the Old on monetary
reform. In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money Monetae Cudendae
Ratio. In it, Copernicus formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "Gresham's
Law," that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation,
70 years before Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of
money. As governor of Warmia, he administered taxes and dealt out justice.
During these years, Copernicus also traveled extensively on government business and as a diplomat, on behalf of the Prince-Bishop of Warmia.
Heliocentrism
In 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his Commentariolus (Little
Commentary), a short handwritten text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. Thereafter he continued gathering
data for a more detailed work.
The astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God.[2]
Painting by
Jan Matejko.
In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals.
On 1 November 1536, Archbishop of Capua Nicholas Schönberg
wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome:
Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have
a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers
uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the
lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir,
unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me
your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this
subject...[3]
By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over
Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed with the publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism —
a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent Dedication of his masterpiece
to Pope Paul III. About this, historians of
science David Lindberg and Ronald
Numbers have written:
If Copernicus had any genuine fear of publication, it was the reaction of scientists, not clerics, that worried him. Other
churchmen before him — Nicole Oresme (a French bishop) in
the fourteenth century and Nicolaus Cusanus (a German cardinal) in the fifteenth — had freely discussed the possible motion of the earth, and there was
no reason to suppose that the reappearance of this idea in the sixteenth century would cause a religious stir.[4]
In connection with the Galileo affair, Copernicus' book was suspended until corrected
by the Index of the Catholic
Church in 1616, because the Pythagorean doctrine of the motion of the Earth and the
immobility of the Sun "is false and altogether opposed to the Holy Scripture".[5][6] These corrections were
indicated in 1620, and nine sentences had to be either omitted or changed. [7] The book stayed on the Index until 1758. In that period
Galileo Galilei was found guilty in 1633 for "following
the position of Copernicus, which [is] contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture ..."[8], and was sent to his home near Florence where
he was to be under house arrest for the remainder of his life in 1638.
The book
Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon had
arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them. Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for
two years, during which he wrote a book, Narratio prima (First Account),
outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of De revolutionibus). Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the
favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus
for printing by Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg
(Nürnberg).
Legend has it that the first printed copy of De
revolutionibus was placed in Copernicus' hands on the very day he died, allowing him to take farewell of his opus
vitae (life's work). He is reputed to have woken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and died peacefully.
Copernican system
-
Predecessors
Early traces of a heliocentric model are found in several anonymous Vedic Sanskrit texts composed in ancient India before the
7th century BCE. Additionally, the Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata
anticipated elements of Copernicus' work by over a thousand years.
Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century
BCE elaborated some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (the daily rotation of
the Earth on its axis, the revolution of Venus and Mercury around the Sun) to propose what was the first scientific model of a
heliocentric solar system: the Earth and all other planets revolving around the Sun, the Earth rotating around its axis daily,
the Moon in turn revolving around the Earth once a month. His heliocentric work has not survived, so we can only speculate about
what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to Plutarch, a contemporary of
Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion."
Copernicus cited Aristarchus and Philolaus in
a surviving early manuscript of his book, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that
Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." For reasons unknown (possibly from reluctance to quote
pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the published book. It has been argued that in developing the
mathematics of heliocentrism Copernicus drew on not just the Greek, but also the work of Muslim astronomers, especially the works of Nasir al-Din
Tusi (Tusi-couple), Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
(Urdi lemma) and Ibn al-Shatir. Copernicus also discussed the theories of Ibn Battuta and Averroes in his major work.
Ptolemy
Ptolemy. Medieval artist's rendition.
A 16th century portrait of Copernicus.
The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by Ptolemy
in his Almagest, dating from about 150 A.D.. The
Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary
center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in
smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet.
Copernicus
Copernicus' major theory was published in the book, De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) during the year of his death, 1543, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier.
The Copernican system can be summarized in seven propositions, as Copernicus himself collected them in a Compendium of
De revolutionibus that was found and published in
1878.
The major parts of Copernican theory are:
- Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles).
- The center of the universe is near the Sun.
- Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars.
- The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis.
- Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion.
- The distance from the Earth to the sun is small compared to the distance to the stars.
The work itself was then divided into six books:
- General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
- Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments
developed in the subsequent books)
- Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
- Description of the Moon and its orbital motions
- Concrete exposition of the new system
- Concrete exposition of the new system (continued)
Copernicanism
Copernicus' theory is of extraordinary importance in the history of human knowledge. Many authors suggest that few other
persons have exerted a comparable influence on human culture in general and on science in
particular.[citation needed] There are parallels with the life of Charles Darwin, in that both men produced a short early description of their theories, but held back on a
definitive publication until late in life, against a backdrop of controversy, particularly with regard to religion.
Many meanings have been ascribed to Copernicus' theory, apart from its strictly scientific import. His work affected
religion as well as science, religious belief as well as
freedom of scientific
inquiry. Copernicus' rank as a scientist is often compared with that of Galileo.
The Copernican theory challenged Aristotle's and Ptolemy's commonly accepted geocentric
model of the universe endorsed by the Church. Copernicanism also opened the
way to immanence, the view that a divine force, or divine being, pervades all that exists — a
view that has since been developed further in modern philosophy.[citation needed] Immanentism also leads to
subjectivism: to the theory that it is perception that creates reality, that there is no
underlying reality that exists independent of perception.[citation needed] Thus some argue that Copernicanism demolished the foundations of medieval
science and metaphysics.[attribution needed]
A corollary of Copernicanism is that scientific law need not be congruent with appearance. This contrasts with
Aristotle's system, which placed much more importance on the derivation of knowledge through
the senses.
Copernicus' concept marked a scientific revolution. The publication of his
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is often taken to mark
the beginning of the Scientific Revolution, together with the publication of
Andreas Vesalius' De Humani Corporis
Fabrica.[9]
Quotes
Copernicus:
Copernicus with medicinal plant
- "For I am not so enamored of my own opinions that I disregard what others may think of them. I am aware that a philosopher's
ideas are not subject to the judgment of ordinary persons, because it is his endeavor to seek the truth in all things, to the
extent permitted to human reason by God. Yet I hold that completely erroneous views should be shunned. Those who know that the
consensus of many centuries has sanctioned the conception that the earth remains at rest in the middle of the heaven as its
center would, I reflected, regard it as an insane pronouncement if I made the opposite assertion that the earth moves."[10]
- "For when a ship is floating calmly along, the sailors see its motion mirrored in everything outside, while on the other hand
they suppose that they are stationary, together with everything on board. In the same way, the motion of the earth can
unquestionably produce the impression that the entire universe is rotating." [11]
- "Hence I feel no shame in asserting that this whole region engirdled by the moon, and the center of the earth, traverse this
grand circle amid the rest of the planets in an annual revolution around the sun. Near the sun is the center of the universe.
Moreover, since the sun remains stationary, whatever appears as a motion of the sun is really due rather to the motion of the
earth."[12]
- "At rest, however, in the middle of everything is the sun. For, in this most beautiful temple, who would place this lamp in
another or better position than that from which it can light up the whole thing at the same time? For, the sun is not
inappropriately called by some people the lantern of the universe, its mind by others, and its ruler by still others.
The Thrice Greatest labels it a visible god, and Sophocles' Electra, the all-seeing. Thus indeed, as though seated on a royal throne, the sun governs
the family of planets revolving around it."[13]
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe:[citation needed]
- "Of all discoveries and opinions, none may have exerted a greater effect on the human spirit than the doctrine of Copernicus.
The world had scarcely become known as round and complete in itself when it was asked to waive the tremendous privilege of being
the center of the universe. Never, perhaps, was a greater demand made on mankind — for by this admission so many things vanished
in mist and smoke! What became of our Eden, our world of innocence, piety and poetry; the testimony of the senses; the conviction
of a poetic — religious faith? No wonder his contemporaries did not wish to let all this go and offered every possible resistance
to a doctrine which in its converts authorized and demanded a freedom of view and greatness of thought so far unknown, indeed not
even dreamed of."
Friedrich Nietzsche:[citation needed]
- "It gave me pleasure to contemplate the right of the Polish nobleman to upset with his simple veto the determinations of a
[parliamentary] session; and the Pole Copernicus seemed to have made of this right against the determinations and presentations
of other people, the greatest and worthiest use."
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (General German Biography),
1875: [14]
- "The nationality question has been a subject of various writings; an honoring controversy over the claim to the founder of
our current world view is conducted between Poles and Germans, but as already mentioned nothing certain can be determined
concerning the nationality of Copernicus' parents; the father seems to have been of Slavic birth, the mother German; he was born
in a city whose municipal authorities and educated inhabitants were Germans, but which at the time of his birth was under Polish
rule; he studied at the Polish capital, Krakau, then in Italy, and lived out his days as a canon in Frauenburg; he wrote Latin
and German. In science, he is a man who belongs to no single nation, whose labors and strivings belong to the whole world, and we
do not honor the Pole nor the German in Copernicus, but the man of free spirit, the great astronomer, the father of the new
astronomy, the author of the true world view."
Johannes Rau as President of
Germany (1999-2004) in an address to the Polish people in 1999:[15]
- "Poles and Germans have a common history of great scientists: Today we no longer perceive Copernicus, Hevelius, Schopenhauer and Fahrenheit as the property of one nation but as representatives of one transnational culture."
Declaration of the Polish Senate, June 12, 2003:
- "On the five hundred thirtieth anniversary of the birth, and the four hundred sixtieth anniversary of the death, of Mikołaj
Kopernik, the Senate of the Polish Republic expresses its highest esteem and praise for this exceptional Pole, one of the
greatest scientists in world history. Mikołaj Kopernik, world-famous astronomer and author of the landmark work, De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium, "stopped the Sun and moved the Earth." He distinguished himself for Poland as an
exceptional mathematician, economist, lawyer, physician and priest, as well as defender of Olsztyn Castle during the
Polish-Teutonic war. May the memory of his achievements endure and be a source of inspiration to future generations."
Grave
Frombork Cathedral, Copernicus' burial place.
Copernicus was reportedly buried in the Cathedral of Frauenburg where archeologists had long vainly searched for his remains.
In August 2005, a team of archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology and
anthropology institute in Pułtusk, discovered what they
believe to be Copernicus' grave and remains, after scanning beneath the floor of the Cathedral. The find came after a year of
searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent
sure it is Copernicus".
Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Central
Forensic Laboratory of the Polish Police used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including
a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait.[16] The expert also determined that the skull had belonged to a man who had died about age 70 —
Copernicus' age at the time of his death.
The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains were found. The archeologists hoped to find deceased relatives of
Copernicus in order to attempt DNA identification.
Nationality
It remains a matter of dispute whether a nationality should be attributed in hindsight to Copernicus, and if so, if he should
be regarded as German or Polish.[17] Already from the late 18th century until 1918, in a time in which
no Polish state existed, the issue was noted as controversial, e. g. on
German records at least since 1875 (see ADB quote above)[18] Current German sources call the controversy, as manifested in older literature,
superfluous and shameful.[19] While the Catholic Encyclopedia does not attribute a nationality[20], Encyclopædia
Britannica[21] and Microsoft Encarta[22] introduce him as "Polish as