Notions, Ideas, and Methods

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absolute - single, eternal explanation for all reality
abstraction - that which is theoretical, dissociated from specific instances or phenomena
academicism - purely speculative thoughts and opinions
a fortiori - (adj) Latin. lit. from a stronger; even more certain, for an even stronger reason
agnosticism - belief that we cannot know whether God exists
altruism - principle or practice of unselfish concern for the good of others, esp. as a moral act
analytic - (adj) being of a type of proposition or statement inherently true by virtue of its terms’ meanings
antithesis - second stage of dialectical process, being a proposition directly opposite and apparently contradictory to the thesis
a posteriori - (adj) Latin. lit. from what comes later; derived from experience, based on empirical data; from a particular instance to a general law
appearance - sensory aspect of existence to an observer
a priori - (adj) Latin. lit. from what precedes; independent of and prior to experience; based on reason or inherent logic, independent of empirical data; from a general law to a particular instance
archetype - original model from which all others follow, esp. perfect example of type
association of ideas - basic principle explaining all mental activity in terms of combining and recombining of certain component elements
atheism - rejection of all belief in God
automatism - view of body as a machine and consciousness as noncontrolling element of body
becoming - that which exists only temporarily or changes from one form to another
being - that which has unchanging actuality or substance or is logically conceivable
casuistry - skill in science and application of moral decisions and judgments; employment of specious reasoning in moral questions
categorical imperative - unconditional moral rule of conduct, not dependent on personal preferences
category - basic form or mode of existence
cause - that which is responsible for an effect in deterministic thinking; in Aristotelian thinking, that which is based on something’s substance, design, maker, and purpose or function
chain of being - hierarchical notion of universe as ordered structure of diminishing complexity from God on down
cogito ergo sum - Latin. lit. I think, therefore I am; fundamental argument for idealism, attributed to René Descartes
concept - idea capable of being defined and recognized; general idea or class
concretion - that which is founded in fact; hard evidence, specific instances, or phenomena
connotation - implication of a term, as distinguished from its denotation
consciousness - awareness, sentience
contingence - condition of being not necessary or of essence
corporeal - (adj) relating to the body or physical matter
debate - formal argument, esp. between those taking opposite views on single proposition
deduction - mode of reasoning leading from general observation to particular conclusion
denotation - specific meaning of a term, as distinguished from its connotation
dialectic - orig. Socratic philosophic discourse or style of inquiry based on critical examination, later developed by Hegel as dynamic process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis; Hegelian dialectic
dichotomy - division into two classes; distinction based on a basic dissimilarity
ding an sich - German. lit. the thing itself; essential being, prior to secondary qualities
discourse - orderly, systematic communication, esp. in philosophic discussion
discursive - (adj) characterized by analysis
dysteleology - assumed absence of purpose and design in nature and phenomena
eclecticism - combining of elements from different philosophical systems without resolving their conflicts
effect - that which results from a cause in deterministic thinking
emotivism - idea that ethical behavior is an expression of feelings and emotions
empirical - (adj) pertaining to the senses; dependent on experience and direct observation
entelechy - motive force for realization, completion, and perfection
epiphenomenalism - idea that body can alter mind, but mind cannot alter body
essence - inherent nature of an object, inseparable from its identity and contingent on nothing
ethical pluralism - notion that more than one basic moral system can exist
evil - moral wrongdoing; malevolence or ethical perversion
exegesis - critical explanation
existence - being; all that has being and continues to be
experience - totality of what is perceived and thought
Forms - absolute, eternal, immutable, and perfected Platonic models of which all earthly things are imperfect copies
four elements - basic constituents of physical world: earth, air, fire, and water
free will - option and power of moral choice in determining one’s behavior
golden mean - Aristotelian ethical doctrine of moderation as way to virtuous action
good - character or behavior that is a model of moral order of the universe; that which promotes or inspires actions and attitudes supporting happiness and well-being
Gordian knot - intricate and difficult problem or circumstance best resolved by cutting through it boldly and imaginatively
Hegelian dialectic - dialectic
hermeneutics - science of interpretation and explanation
heuristic - (adj) characterized by ability to persuade or reveal rather than to convince logically
Hobson’s choice - choice between unacceptable alternatives; absence of real alternatives
holism - notion that fundamental entities have existence beyond sum of their parts
hypothesis - assumption, theory, or proposition made to account for some phenomena
hypothetical imperative - conditional rule of conduct: if certain results are desired, certain actions must be taken
idea - something present in consciousness; in Platonic terms, an archetype or essential concept
ideal world - world of permanent truth
immanent - (adj) existing within the mind only
indeterminism - notion that some events do not have any cause
induction - mode of reasoning leading from particular observations to general conclusions
inference - mode of reasoning in which conclusion is derived from premises accepted as true
infinite regress - endless series of arguments connected by interdependent premises and conclusions
innate ideas - inborn ideas not based on experience
intellect - ability to think
intuition - direct apprehension of knowledge, without application of reason
knowledge - understanding based on experience, intuition, and reason
li - ultimate embodiment of good in Confucianism
Logos - universal rational principle that orders the universe
maieutic - (adj) pertaining to the Socratic method for clarifying ideas
methodology - study of the nature of inquiry
mind-body duality - idea that mind and body are distinct
model - ideal form of image, object, or argument
monad - Greek. lit. unit; ultimate, indivisible force center that is unit of all existence
moral skepticism - notion that ethical principles have no objective basis
natural law - naturally occurring moral rules that form universal law higher than man-made law
natural rights - innate rights of humanity, such as life, liberty, equality, and the pursuit of happiness, that cannot be denied by society
noetics - science of the intellect or of pure thought
noncontradiction - principle that statement cannot be both true and false and object cannot both have and not have some quality
noumenon - Greek. lit. that which is conceived; reality that cannot be experienced, as opposed to appearance or phenomena
nous - Greek. lit. mind; universal principle of reason, embodied in God
Occam’s razor - principle that simplest explanation or theory is correct and should not be needlessly multiplied
ontological argument - attempt to prove existence of God by analysis of definition of God
ontology - metaphysical study of the essence of being and reality
organon - system of rules or principles for demonstration or examination
pantheism - belief that God and universe are identical
particular - individual, specific instance, object, or term for a universal or general class
percept - sense perception rather than idea of an object
perceptual error - false or distorted sense perception
perceptual judgment - judgment based on sense perception
Peripatetic - follower of Aristotle, so called from practice of walking while teaching
petitio principii - Latin. lit. postulation of the beginning; assumption of a premise identical with the conclusion
phenomena - objects and events known through sensory experience
phenomenal world - world of appearances
philosopher king - Platonic ideal of philosopher ruling and leading society
physicalism - theory that all factual statements can be reduced to observations of phenomena
poetic - (adj) apprehended by the emotions
praxis - action and practice rather than theory
primary quality - characteristic inherent in an object, such as its shape, size, or mass
quintessence - essence of a substance; substance other than four elements believed to compose celestial bodies
reality - that which exists independently of ideas about it and independently of all other things, but from which all else derives
reason - intellectual faculty, ability to comprehend by rational powers; systematic thinking, judgment of truth of propositions
secondary quality - characteristic in object capable of stimulating sense perception, such as color or sound
sensationalism - empiricist view that sensations are both source and verification of all knowledge
sentience - ability to sense or feel
situation ethics - moral evaluation of any action in relation to specific circumstance
social contract - concept that society is based on agreement among people to be governed
Socratic method - dialectic technique of inquiry developed by Plato’s teacher Socrates (Greece, 5th c. B.C.)
solipsism - theory that one can be aware of nothing outside the self and one’s personal perceptions and feelings
sophistry - use of persuasive but misleading or unsound argument
spiritualism - view that the spirit is ultimate reality in universe
state of nature - concept in political philosophy describing condition of humankind without government
substance - that which exists by itself or is the essential part of something
sufficient reason - principle that there is a reason for every phenomenon being as it is and not otherwise
summum bonum - Latin. lit. highest good; moral principle of action based on effecting the greatest good
superman - ideal, superior being described in work of Friedrich Nietzsche
synthesis - dialectical combining of thesis and antithesis into higher stage of truth
synthetic - type of proposition or statement in which predicate adds, or synthesizes, knowledge
tabula rasa - Latin. lit. blank tablet; empiricist description of human mind at birth, with no innate ideas, awaiting experience to develop ideas
teleology - belief in purpose and design in nature and phenomena
theorem - principle, rule
theory - hypothesis or speculation rather than action
thesis - proposition held for proof by argument
transeunt - (adj) producing an effect outside the mind
truth - accord between internal and external realities; established and accepted principles of observation, action, or behavior; reality itself
unexamined life - existence apart from philosophical inquiry, deemed not worth living by Plato
universal - general concept having unrestricted application; proposition true for all members of its class
values - moral standards and social goals held worthy for their own sake
verifiability - ability of statement to be confirmed as true or refuted as false
vice - moral corruption or evil
virtue - moral integrity or excellence
will - ability to make choices
will to power - Friedrich Nietzsche’s view that power is the prime motivating force in human nature
zetetic - (adj) seeking; (n) seeker