Anand Thokar,Tamang

Prithvinarayamunicipality-10,Gorkha,Nepal

TAMANG TRIBE

I. Introduction

The word "tamang" is neither Nepali nor Tibetan word. But some says that "ta" means 'horse' and "man" means 'warriors' or riders.

The name Tamang, normally it is Tamag in Tibetan, means horse warriors, Tamags were border police sent by king Trisong of Tibet around 755. The Tamangs are one of the several ethnic groups from north central hilly region of Nepal. Tamang people are predominately found in the districts of sindhupalchowk, rasuwa, Lalitpur,dhading, makwanpur, nuwakot, ramecchap, dolkha, and kavreplanchowk, and small number of tamang who migrated from Nepal can be found in the hilly region of India. Their language, also called Tamang is related to both Tibetan and Sherpa languages. They are also good mountaineers and trekking guides. Many of Tamang have been recruited to serve in Indian and British Gurkha regiments since British Raj2.

Tamanage is the most important tribe race among more then 60 tribeal races of Nepal.

The tamangs speak Tamang language. Damphu, Tungha, urchunga and selo etc. These things symbolize Tamang tribe . Home made apparels like syama (Lungi like pharia), Gya, Gabarko, Gyatokaroka, home made woolen blankets pakhi syoldo surkai (Lukuni), phenka (home made cloth of nettleplant bark), nanglo, (winnowing tray, Doko ( Wicker basket ), Thunse (Bamboo - band basket), Wearing Namlo ( band made from jule thread used to place round one's fore head when carrying loads on the back) thanka ( indigenous art), mukundo (mask- making) etc. are the original vocatious of Tamangs. The actual meaning of the word 'TAMANG' have been defined differently by the scholars the authenlic meaning is - ' The original tribe of Nepal.'3

II. Meaning of "tamang"

The word Tamang may be derived from the Tibetan words "Ta" means "horse" and "man" means "trader." Tamang has remained and it is all the better because the term "Bhote" has come to be a highly objectionable and derogatory term to most Nepalis4.

Janak Lal Sharma said that originally they were collectively called "Bhote", meaning Tibetan and that later on the term "Tamang" was attached to them because they were horse traders. "Ta" in Tibetan means "horse" and "man" means "trader." "Tamang" has remained and it is all the better because the term "Bhote" has come to be a highly objectionable and derogatory term to most Nepalis.

III. Population of Tamang

Tamangs are living mainly north and east of the country. They constitute 5.6% of Nepal's population, which places their population at 1,595,000 slightly higher than the Newars.

According to Joshua Project Tamangs are living in the Largest Provinces in Nepal. In Nepale, there are 14 Zones.Among them Tamangs are living in Ten Zonals of Nepal. They are:

1. Bagmati- 7,54,000

2. Narayani- 3,43,000

3. Janakpur- 2,49,000

4. Koshi- 1,23,000

5. Sagarmatha- 74,000

6. Mechi- 45,000

7. Gandaki- 33,000

8. Lumbini- 12,000

9. Seti- 8,3000

10. Mahakali- 6,600

IV. History of Tamang's Tribe:

The word Tamang has been found to be used in a document of the thirteenth century. That document found by David Jackson (2976:53) mentions that King Bumlde Mgon built the Shrin fortress in Mustang to suppress the ethnic group Tamang of Lower Glo (Mustang). Although the word Tamang was used as early as the thirteenth century to denote an ethnic group, following the expansion of the Gorkhali kingdom the use of the word was prohibited. The Tamang were addressed in a derogatory manner as 'Bhote' and 'Murmi'. The Tamangs have, however, continued to call themselves Tamang.

According to Janak Lal Sharma, those Mongols came from north are today's Tamangs.

According to the version of the dynasty of Nepal and Dr. Shetenkoko, Tamangs are the oldest tribe of Nepal. Tamangs are form one of the major Tibeto-Burman speaking communities in Nepal and maintain a belief that they originally came from Tibet. No on seems to have any idea how long they have resided on the south slopes of the Himalayas.

Tamang is the very ancient tribe of Nepal. The Tamanga are original people of Yambu (Kattmandu). Nepalese history speaks that the Enlightened Manjushree made an ancient abode of Tamang in Yambu. The ancient Tamang song- " Gyanaka Gyamse Phepkaziam or appeared from China" proves that the oldest tribe of Yambu (Kathmandu) is Tamang. There are dense Tamang settlement around the Yambu (Kathmandu) even today. In the course (way) of time, other races also setlled in and around Yambu (Kathmandu) and gradually the Tamang people were displaced.

Dr. Anatoly Yakoblave Shetenko visited Nepal under the archaeological study programme under an agreement between Nepal and USSR. He discovered the tools, Weapons and apparatus of stone age (of about 30000 B.C.) at Budhanilkantha were the same as found in Govy of Mongolia, Asia and America. At present such apparatus of Mongolian stone-age are found in Yambu (Kathmandu, Budhanilkantha) which prove that the Mongolians (Tamangs) came via (by way of) Tibet and Himalayan to Nepal.It is evident that the Mongols were settled in Yambu (Kathmandu) from North before 30,000 (Thirty thousand) years ago.

They started to settle down in the eastern region of Nepal and slowly started spread all over Nepal. As, the time passed by the population of Tamang was increased and became the integral part of Nepali community. Gorkhali and Nepali are considered to be the synonymous term, so are Tamang and Lama, during the time of British rule. The British adopted a policy of recruiting the Gorkhas in the British Army, acknowledging the fighting qualities of Gorkhas.

Due to this reason Tamangs migrated outside Nepal like Darjeeling, Kalimpong (West Bengal), Sikkim, Assam, Nagaland etc in India and also in Bhutan and Burma. They got good status outside Nepal. In India they were treated as Other Backward Class and in 2002 they were declared a Schedule Tribe. The Government of Sikkim worked very hard for their status, as they are the integral part of Sikkimese population.

V. Social Structure

A study reveals that the Tamang community occupies a unique position in the social structure in Nepal, Darjeeling districts and Sikkim. Tamangs are an important minor ethnic group of Tibeto-Mongoloid origin. Tamangs are Buddhist by religion, yet they are equally at ease with some social customs of the Nepali Hindus including the observance of festival like Magay Sankranti, Chaitaydasai, Vaishaki Purnima, Dasai (Durga Puja) and Tihar (Diwali) while performing the obsequies and religious ceremonies the Tamangs are guided by Buddhist lamaistic rites and rituals sometimes Hindu rites and rituals.

Beside these, the Tamangs also follows Bon faith. They have their religious altar (place of worship) no idols of any god or goddesses are kept on such religious altar of the Tamangs. There are only lamps, bells and trisula on such altars. Such altars are generally located under big trees. One could also find some stones here and there kept as the symbols of god or goddess. Walls are erected around the place of worship. The Tamangs offer puja to the god and goddess of earth, under world and the sky. Yellow, White, Green and Red flag flutter around the boundary of the place of worship. The Tamangs perform a special type puja called Fawla Halsu. It is a kind of collective puja in the name of their tribe and is performed during the months of Mangsir to Fagun (November - March). Goats and fowls are sacrificed on such occasions.

VI. Societal Leaders

The Tamangs have a system of six types of societal leaders: Tamba, Ganba, Bonbo, Labonbo, Lama and Choho to keep the Tamang society continuously alive and dynamic. The six have their respective and important roles to play in the development of Tamang society. The Tamba looks after the cultural aspect and has a very important role to play in marriage ceremonies. The Lama carries out death rites (Ghewa) and undertakes activities related to the Buddhist religion. The Bonbo propitiates the local gods and goddesses and assists by providing treatment to the sick and needy in the village. The Labonbo (Laptaba) keeps alive the history of the clan and lineage through the worship of clan deities. As each thar or subgroup, has its own Pholan or clan deity, there are different Labonbos for each and every subgroup. The Choho looks into cases and dispenses justice and maintains peace, security and well being in society. The Ganba participates in all types of social, political and religious activities. He observes the various activities of society, including whether the Tamba, Bonbo, Lama, Labtaba, Choho, etc have fulfilled theirfunctions as prescribed by rituals and to the best of their ability or not, and evaluates the activities and gives his suggestions. Thus, the six societal leaders or actors continue to make the Tamang society aware of its duties and responsibilities. There are also in Tamang society traditional institutions like Nhangkhor active to undertake socio-cultural activities.

VII. Subgroups among Tamang:

There are more than 100 subgroups (thar and sahathar) within the Tamang, and inter-marriage does not occur within the same subgroup (thar as well as sahathar).

1.'Barah Tamangs' are divided into Bal, Baju, Baltong, Blan, Bomjan, Chepenkor, Chumi, Dong, Dongba, Dumjan, Glan, Gomden, Ghising, Gaiba, Goley, Gongba, Grangdan, Hopthen Jimba, Jongan, Jumi, Khani khor, Khiungba, Kitung, Kulden, Lama, Gongju, Lamakhor, Loho, Lopchan, Lungba, Marnumba, Mikchan, Moktan, Neki nesur, Pakhrin, Palchokey, Rumba, Sherba, Khor, Syangden, Singar, Syangbo, Suktel, Toishin, Thing, Thokor, Titung, Tungba, Waiba and Yonjan classes.

2. 'Atharah Tamangs' are divided into Gothar or Godar, Ngarba and Sangri classes.

VIII. Marriage:

Inter marriage does not occur within the same subgroup (thahar as well as sahathar). Although inter marriage can occur between a boy, say belonging to the Thokar subgroup and a girl belonging to the Syangtan subgroup, if the mother of both the boy and girl belong to the same subgroup, however, marriage between them is not possible since they are socially recognized as the son and daughter of the same mother. There is the practice of marrying one's maternal uncle's and aunt's daughter.

Unlike in Hindu society, Tamang women do not adopt the last name of their husbands following marriage. Their thar or subgroup does not change; the woman remains in the same subgroup her entire life. When she dies, the body cannot be disposed without the presence and permission of her relatives. There is the traditional practice among Tamang daughters of undertaking small economic activities (Pewa) like keeping goats, chicken, etc. This enables the daughter to learn to stand on her feet and makes her self-reliant.

Marriages are of the three standard types: Arrangement Marriage, Capture Marriage and Mutual Agreement Marriage.

1. Arrangement Marriage:

Arrangements are made when they are only fourteen or fifteen years old. When the arrangements are agreed upon, the boy's father takes the boy and goes to the girl's parent's house accompanied by 40 or 50 people and brings the bride back to his own house, where the actual wedding ceremony takes place. The wedding consists of putting the tika (vermilion) mark on the forehead of both the boy and girl by all senior members of the family and relatives. The neighbours and relatives are fed boiled rice, mutton or buffalo meat and given much spirit to drink.

2. Capture Marriage: -

A capture marriage usually occurs when the boy selects a bride who may not consent easily or when he wants to avoid the long procedure and expenditure of an arranged marriage. It is done even in the case of preferred cross-cousin marriages to save trouble, time and expense. If the captured girl persistently refuses to get married for three days, she is allowed to return to her parents. If she agrees, a proper wedding ceremony is organized and friends and relatives, including the girl's parents are invited. A girl may be captured from a fair or a market. It her parents take the offence too seriously, they approach the boy's family making demands for compensation. Once they are pacified the rest of the procedure follows smoothly.

3. Mutual Agreement Marriage:

Most Tamang young people get married by mutual agreement. When a boy and girl are in love and decide to marry, the boy asks his parents to approach her parents for their consent. Once consent is given the wedding can be organized in the same way as in the case of the arranged marriage. If by any chance either the boy's or the girl's parents do not consent to the match the only choice for them is to elope and remain hidden until their parents either agree or totally ignore them.

If a man has only one daughter and no sons he can bring in a husband for his daughter to inherit and own property. The husband is not subsequently allowed to take another wife, but should he do so while he is enjoying the property of his first wife's father. It automatically goes back to his first wife. Should the wife leave the husband her father has brought in she is not entitled to her father's property; if she dies the husband can with her parents' permission marry another women.

Lamas(religious leader) usually marry the daughters of other Lamas and teach their sons to act as Lamas. "In this way" notes Furer-Haimendorf, "a class of lamas have grown up and though neither strictly endogamous nor formally privileged, this class now forms an upper stratum distinct from the ordinary cultivators. Lama however is a broad term. The priestly class among the sherpas and all the disciples and monks of any monastery are also popularly called "Lama". There is also a clan called lama among the sherpas. All non-Tamangs, when trying to be polite use the flattering term "Lama" for any Tamang individual.

IX. Religion and Religious Prctices:

The Tamang generally follow Tibetan Buddhism mixed with elements of the pre-Buddhist Bön and the Tambaist religion. Their priests include Lamas, Bonbos/Bombos and Tambas. Unlike Nepali Bahun/Chettri people, majority Tamang people do not participate in Nepali's Hindu animal sacrificing tradition. According to the 2001 census, 88.26% of the ethnic Tamang in Nepal were Buddhists and 7.69% were Hindus.The typical song and dance of the Tamangs is "Tamang selo" in which they dance to the beat of a drum called "Damphu." Damphu is the traditional drum of the Tamangs.

Tamangs inscribe prayers and the names of gods on stone tablets and put them by the roadside framed by a stone wall. There are called hiki. Bibs and manis (chortens of sherpa style) are built as memorials to dead relatives. When one is completed, a big feast is given to the villagers. All of this is supposed to bring some merit, which will help both the dead and the person who spends the money and time in the building process. Lamas are employed for such occasions. At the wedding ceremony, however, Lamas are not necessary; they have no role. But they are employed in reciting religious scriptures for the general welfare and at the name-giving ceremony of a newborn baby. The name-giving ceremony is done on the seventh day for a girl and the ninth or eleventh day after birth for a boy. Many Tamang Lamas have studied in Sherpa monasteries and a few even in Tibet.

Ancestral history is narrated during Phola worship. Similarly the worship of Neda Sipda (deities of land and water) to revere earth as a source of sustenance, worship of Yhulla (Goddess of village) for the prosperity of the villages and the worship of Jyojyomo (most favoured family deity) are also ubiquitous in Tamang societies. Life cycle rituals such as naming ceremony, rice-feeding ceremony, tonsure ceremony, ceremony of giving Nepali Sari (Guniu), marriage ceremony and funeral rite are still prevailing in society. Different ritual experts have different roles in these rituals. A lot of indigenous as well as foreign scholars have conducted research studies on Tamang language and culture.

According to Joshua Project-

Buddhism

89.60%

Christianity

3.42 %

(Evangelical: Data not available)

Ethnic Religions

0.00 %

Hinduism

6.82 %

Islam

0.00 %

Non-Religious

0.00 %

Other / Small

0.10 %

Unknown

0.06 %

1. Child Birth:

The purification and naming ceremony of the child is done in three days after the birth of the child. Due to the influence of the Hindu religion practised by the Brahmins this is sometimes done within seven to eleven days after the birth of the child. According to the traditional customs of the Tamangs the father of child performs such ceremony. This is now done by the Tamang Lama or even by the Brahmin priest. The Holy Scriptures used by the Lama for such ceremony is called "Choi". On the sixth day the mother and the child are kept in a clean room after cleaning their bodies with water.

2. Pasni/Feeding Ceremony:

The feeding ceremony which is called Pasni is done after five months for a daughter and six months for a son. The Tamangs have a peculiar custom of feeding the child with a beak of a Maina bird. There is a belief that in doing so the child would start speaking sooner. The relatives and other persons are served with food and drinks on this occasion. They in return also present money or other gifts to the child.

3. Chewar/Hair Cutting Ceremony:

Chewar or Hair Cutting Ceremony is performed within three or twelve years. There is a tradition of an uncle shaving the hair of the child. The daughters of the family and other relatives are supposed to give gifts to the child on such occasion. There is also a peculiar traditional custom among the Tamangs of performing a Pasni of old person when he attends the age of eighty four years.

X. The Village Life

The village life of the Tamangs is very simple. They are farmers and agriculturists. The Tamangs like to live collectively and not in a scattered way. They are very social and they live like one big family sharing the joy and sorrows of day to day life. They keep their village neat and clean. They build roads of stones on the hillock of the village were the prayer flags flutter day and night. The villagers wear simple Nepali or Tibetan dresses. The women folk, love to wear ornaments of gold or silver. Their food habits are also simple which consist of millet, maize, wheat or barley flour. They also eat rice in places where paddy is grown. They are very fond of meat especially beef. Some Tamangs eat pork but other does not do so. Like me I am Ghysing and we can eat beef as well as pork. Both the men and the women drink Janr (prepared out of millet or wheat) a local drink.

XII. Tamang Festivals

1. Buddha Jayanti/Saga Dawa: Buddha Jayanti is the most important religious festival for Buddhist Tamangs. Tamangs pay a visit to Monasteries and offer khatag to Lord Buddha. A procession carries the Holy books of the teachings of Buddha from the monasteries. On this day in different years of his life, Lord Buddha took birth, achieved Enlightenment and attained Nirvana. These three important events are celebrated in this festival. This festival is held on the full moon of the 4th month of the Buddhist calendar in the end of May or early June. Tamangs in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Myanmar and all over the world celebrate Buddha jayanti on similar ways.

2. Deshain: Deshain is also celebrated by Tamangs. Tamangs celebrate deshain as all peoplecelebrate it. They buy new clothes; visit the house of the senior most people in the family. Drink, dance and be in joyful mood.

3.Tihar: Tihar is the festivals of brothers and sisters. Small kids make small groups and goes from door to door saying "Deusi re" and get blessings from houses. Sisters organize special celebration of Tihar for brothers.

4. Lochhar (New Year) :

Tamangs are an ancient and major indigenous people. They' have unique tradition of counting year by twelve different symbols of creatures. It is said that at the time of Karunamaya Buddha's Parinirmana (Demise) those creatures had gone to farewell him except human beings because of their pre-knowledge of Lord. The Rat was the first among them to meet. The Ox arrived next. All twelve animals are placed according to their arrival in sequence. This system of counting is transferred from generation to generation among Mahayana Buddhism as a wheel. Lhochhar is a combination word in Tamang Literature. It has two words Lho stands for Year and Chhar for New. We generally use in English as New Year (Lho Chhar).

XIII. Language

Tamangs have their own dialect and script. Tamang dialect shares a lot with the Tibetan language. However, Tamang speak a slightly different language and the vocabulary differs in most of the cases and the language occupies fifth place among the languages of Tibeto-Burman family in Nepal. Tamangs have their own script called "Tamyik" which has beed recognised by the All India Tamang Buddhist Association, Darjeeling, Nepal Tamang Gedun, Katmandu and Sikkim Tamang Buddhist Association from June 1998. Some Tamang scholars like Amrit Yonjon and Pempa Tamang have been doing research on the Tamang language. Foreign scholar Grierson George Hodgson, B.H.H. Anna Meria, Bryan T. Doreen and others have made useful research on the language. Recognition of Tamang language as one of the official languages is a very bold step and this will ultimately strengthen the main Nepali language. Tamang language is the largest Tibeto-Burman language in Nepal.

1. Dialects: According to 1991 census the Tamang language has further been subdivided into the following dialects- Eastern Tamang: 759,257 in Nepal . Population total all countries: 773,257; Western Tamang: 322,593; Southwestern Tamang: 109,051; Northwestern Tamang: 55,000; Eastern Gorkha Tamang: 3,977 .

2. Grammer: Some grammatical features of Tamang languages are- postpositions; genitives after nouns; question word medial; ergative; Phonetically Tamang languages are tonal.

3. Writing system: Tamang languages use Tam-Yig which is similar to Tibetan scripts and Devangar. In many situations, however, Tamang is written in Devangar proper.

X. Adoption of Nationality:

All offspring from a Brahmin, Kshetri and Thakuri with a Tamang woman would be included in the Tamang tribe with the family title of Gothar or Godar Tamang of the Atharah jat. In the olden days, prior to the Gorkha conquest the progeny of a Tamang woman with a 'Khas' used to be called Gothar or Godar Tamang. However, since the Gorkha conquest, they have been called Khattris. The Ngarba Tamang was the term used for the progeny born of a Newar with a Tamang woman. Similarly, Sangri Tamang for progenies of either Gurung, Magar, Limbu, Rai or Sunwar through a Tamang woman. Although this was a good policy for nation building, the tradition of its usage came to an end since the children retained the family titles of their father.

XIV. The Music of the Tamangs

The Tamangs are a music loving tribe. Their most loving musical instrument is the Damphu (tambourine). It is a small roundest drum where one side of the circular wood is covered by the skin of a goat which is joined with thirty two small bamboo pencils like pieces. A legend has it that in the ancient time when the Tamangs moved from one place to the other in search of food and shelter they lived by eating wild fruits, edible yams or meat of the wild animals. It was a kind of community life where they shared food in their temporary shelter.

The Tamang songs are known as "Tamang Selo". There are light songs as well as songs with philosophical thoughts. Tamang light songs are called Fabar Wohoi. These songs express the day to day joys and sorrows of the life. The Songs containing philosophical thoughts are generally sung by the Tamba which is called Tambala Wohoi. There are also duet songs which are sung between two parities in the form of questions and answers, one party put some riddles which the other party has to reply in time.

The different kinds of Wohoi Songs are as follows: -

• Sangla Wohoi: - It is a kind of obeisance offered to Gods and Goddesses of different regions and directions.

•Sayr Geymla Wohoi: - It is sung while offering sacrifices to God.

• Moibala-Hai-Wohoii: - It is a kind of prayer asking for the blessing of the God and Goddesses asking blessing from them to enable to sing rightly.

• Damphu Sengba Wohoi: - It is the song on the creation of the musical instrument Damphu.

Tamang Selo has transcended the boundary of linguistic, cultural and social limits. All other Nepali Communities have adopted selo in their music and emotional expression.

• Sacjoua Nam Chiya Wohoi: - It is the song of the creation of the universe.

• Nela Wohoi: - It is a song of the various places.

• Guudni Chayala Wohoi: - It is the song on the origin of the sacred Ganges.

• Raoichen Chyopghy Wohoi: - It is the song on the different clans and sub-clans of the Tamangs. All the above type of songs contains deep philosophic and religious thoughts. There are songs of humour and wit, philosophical thoughts and of joys and sorrows of life as well. The natural surrounding around which they live have made them sentimental and emotional and such feeling have come out from their heart naturally.

XV. Religious Ceremony and Practices:

Other Tamang religious activities include Jhankrism. Jhankrism is not peculiar to the Tamangs but is found throughout the country among almost all groups of people. Tamangs call their Jhankri priest their bonpo. He conducts kyon gyalsi the 'driving away of the spirits', when people fall ill. He worships and sacrifices animals at the shipda than, a shrine for worshipping and offering sacrifices to the earth deity at the time of bhumi puja in the month of October-November and he officiates at other seasonal agricultural rites.

The bonpo (witch doctor) propitiates gods and spirits whenever necessary. He decides when a lha(a clan deity), should be worshipped and which family has the responsibility. Each clan has its own lha and usually the richer members bear the expenses, but all members of the clan living nearby join in the festivities. Each family attending the ceremony brings its contribution of rice and other food and some money, so the family giving the ceremony is partly compensated. The Iha is usually worshipped between November and February. When proper lamas worship their clan deity and observe bhumi puja, they do so with offerings of vegetables only; they do not sacrifice any animals.

Tamangs also perform, on rare occasions, a ritual known as phola Ihasu, a kind of feast of merit in honour of a clan god. This is extremely expensive. When proper Lamas perform it they avoid animal sacrifices of the type that the Jhankri priest would do, but they give a lavish feast to the villagers and make enormous figures of cooked rice. A phola lhasu can be given either by one individual family or by all the members of a clan resident in one village. Tamangs observe the Hindu festival of dashain in honour of the goddess Durga by sacrificing goats and chickens and feasting on them.

The Jhankri bonpo is usually chosen from among the clan members and is considered the clan's priest, whereas a Lama can be of any clan. The bonpo receives one pathi (six to eight pounds) of grain per year from each family in return for the services he renders. He also receives the heads of the animals he sacrifices. The bonpo can call the spirits and becomes possessed in order to enable the gods or spirits to speak through him. When he dies, his spirit selects a new bonpo to take his place. Between the Jhankri and the Buddhist Lama priest, the lama ranks higher, commanding greater respect from his clients and enjoying a greater income. But Jhankrism is not less important in the socio-religious life of the Tamang community. At funeral rites only the Lama is entitled topreside and a Lama must be present at the time of cremation at the traditional site, which is always on the top of a hill. All villagers bring a bundle of firewood, incense, drinks and rice to the cremation. Then, within 7 to 13 days after death, a funeral ceremony called syarku tongsi is done at the convenience of the family survivors. They bring rice and fifty pice each as their contribution when they come to the feast.

Another ceremony is held sometime in the period beginning thirty-five days after the funeral and before six months have elapsed. This ceremony involves much greater expense. Many guests are invited and they bring rice and a few rupees with them. All these gifts are reciprocal; each family, whenever there is a death within it, provides a feast for the villagers and receives some food and money. The food and money thus collected is usually not quite enough to meet the entire cost but is of considerable help.

The leader of most social activities of the village is the mulmi. He is selected by the people for a definite number of years in some cases, while in others the post of mulmi is hereditary. The office is endorsed by the district government. A new mulmi is officially appointed by the villagers on the day of bhumi puja the worship of Mother earth. They mulmi is the agent for collecting land revenue from the villagers~ from which he receives a certain percentage when he takes it to the district revenue office. He is also entitled to one day's free labour from each household within his Jurisdiction. The mulmi with the help of the village elders also controls the forest in his area, which is the source of firewood and timber for the village houses. He is entitled to settle disputes, to levy fines and to mete out punishment except in the case of a few extreme penalties, capital punishment life imprisonment shaving the head for degradation of caste or loss of caste all of which are discharged by a higher government official. Whenever the villagers have complicated caste disputes over marriages between members of unequal caste they invite lamas to adjudicate.

REFERENCES

1. Moktan, Dupwangel Tamang. Chen Thu:Jang, Kathmandu,1998

2. Chemjong, Iman Singh. 2003. History and Culture of Kirat Peoples.

3. Lama, RP, Gurung, MM, Information and Public Relation Department, Government of Sikkim, sikkim Study Series, Volume III, Part - A, Gangtok, Sikkim, 2004.

4.Bhattaroi, Gangaprasad, "Tamang Jati Ma Antim Sanskar", Nirman Sanskriti Bisessanka,Gangtpl. 1999.

5. Tamang, Narendra, "Tamang Hawai Ko Churcha", Reliwari Relipari, 1997.

6. Lama, Santabir, Tamba, Kaitan Howai Rimthim, Ratna, Pustak Bhandra, Kathmandu, 1957.

7. Sharma, Janaklall, "Nepali Tamang Samaj" in Harmro Samaj Ek adhyan (Chapter 18).

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