ombudsman

An ombudsman (conventional English plural: ombudsmen) is a person who acts as a trusted intermediary between either the state (or elements of it) or an organization, and some internal or external constituency, while representing not only but mostly the broad scope of constituent interests. An indigenous Danish, Norwegian and Swedish term, Ombudsman is etymologically rooted in the Old Norse word umboðsmaðr, essentially meaning "representative". In its most frequent modern usage, an ombudsman is an official, usually appointed by the government or by parliament but with a significant degree of independence, who is charged with representing the interests of the public by investigating and addressing complaints reported by individuals. Modern variations of this term include "ombud", "ombuds", "ombudsperson", or "ombudswoman".

Whether appointed by the legislature, the executive, or an organization (or, less frequently, elected by the constituency), the typical duties of an ombudsman are to investigate constituent complaints and attempt to resolve them, usually through recommendations (binding or not) or mediation. Ombudsmen sometimes also aim to identify systemic issues leading to poor service or breaches of people's rights. At the national level, most ombudsmen have a wide mandate to deal with the entire public sector, and sometimes also elements of the private sector (for example, contracted service providers). In some cases, there is a more restricted mandate, for example with particular sectors of society. More recent developments have included the creation of specialised Children's Ombudsman and Information Commissioner agencies.

In some jurisdictions an ombudsman charged with the handling of concerns about national government is more formally referred to as the "Parliamentary Commissioner" (e.g., the United Kingdom Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration, and the Western Australian state Ombudsman). In many countries where the ombudsman's remit extends beyond dealing with alleged maladministration to promoting and protecting human rights, the ombudsman is recognized as the national human rights institution. The word ombudsman and its specific meaning have been adopted in various languages, including Spanish, Dutch and Czech. The post of ombudsman had by the end of the 20th century been instituted by most governments and by some intergovernmental organizations such as the European Union.

In some countries an Inspector General, Citizen Advocate or other official may have duties similar to those of a national ombudsman, and may also be appointed by the legislature. Below the national level an ombudsman may be appointed by a state, local or municipal government, and unofficial ombudsmen may be appointed by, or even work for, a corporation such as a utility supplier or a newspaper, for an NGO, or for a professional regulatory body.

Making a complaint to an ombudsman is usually free of charge.

Sign at Georgetown University Washington DC

Sign near Cape Town, South Africa

Origins and etymology

The origin of the word is found in Old Norse umbuðsmann (accusative) and the word umbuds man, meaning representative (with the word umbud/ombud meaning proxy, that is someone who is authorized to act for someone else, a meaning it still has in the Scandinavian languages). The first preserved use is in Sweden. In the Danish Law of Jutland from 1241 the term is umbozman and means a royal civil servant in a hundred. From 1552, it is also used in the other Scandinavian languages such as the both Icelandic and Faroese umboðsmaður, the Norwegian ombudsmann and the Danish ombudsmand.

The modern use of the term began in Sweden, with the Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman instituted by the Instrument of Government of 1809, to safeguard the rights of citizens by establishing a supervisory agency independent of the executive branch.

A prototype of ombudsmen may have flourished in China during the Qin Dynasty (221 BC), and in Korea during the Joseon Dynasty.^{[citation needed]} The Roman Tribune had some similar roles, with power to veto acts that infringed upon the Plebians.

The predecessor of the Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman was the Office of Supreme Ombudsman ("Högste Ombudsmannen"), which was established by the Swedish King, Charles XII, in 1713. Charles XII was in exile in Turkey and needed a representative in Sweden to ensure that judges and civil servants acted in accordance with the laws and with their duties. If they did not do so, the Supreme Ombudsman had the right to prosecute them for negligence. In 1719 the Swedish Office of Supreme Ombudsman became the Chancellor of Justice.^[1] One inspiration to the Supreme Ombudsman may have been the Turkish Diwan-al-Mazalim which appears to go back to the second Caliph, Umar (634-644) and the concept of Qadi al-Qadat.^[2] However, the current predecessor of ombudsman institutions, the Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman, is based on the concept of separation of powers as developed by Montesquieu,^[1] which has a western origin^[3] and roots in the Enlightenment. The Parliamentary Ombudsman was established in 1809 by the Swedish Riksdag, as a parallel institution to the still-present Chancellor of Justice. The Parliamentary Ombudsman is the institution that the Scandinavian countries subsequently molded into its contemporary form, and which subsequently has been adopted in many other parts of the world.

In politics

In general, an ombudsman is a state official appointed to provide a check on government activity in the interests of the citizen, and to oversee the investigation of complaints of improper government activity against the citizen. If the ombudsman finds a complaint to be substantiated, the problem may get rectified, or an ombudsman report is published making recommendations for change. Further redress depends on the laws of the country concerned, but this normally involves financial compensation. Ombudsmen in most countries do not have the power to initiate legal proceedings or prosecution on the grounds of a complaint. This role is sometimes referred to as a "tribunitian" role, and has been traditionally fulfilled by elected representatives – the term refers to the ancient Roman "tribunes of the plebians" (tribuni plebis), whose role was to intercede in the political process on behalf of common citizens.

The major advantage of an ombudsman is that he or she examines complaints from outside the offending state institution, thus avoiding the conflicts of interest inherent in self-policing. However, the ombudsman system relies heavily on the selection of an appropriate individual for the office, and on the cooperation of at least some effective official from within the apparatus of the state. Perhaps for this reason, outside Scandinavia, the introduction of ombudsmen has tended to yield mixed results.

In organizations

Many private companies, universities, non-profit organizations and government agencies also have an ombudsman (or an ombuds office) to serve internal employees, and managers and/or other constituencies. These ombudsman roles are structured to function independently, by reporting to the CEO or board of directors, and according to International Ombudsman Association (IOA) Standards of Practice do not serve any other role in the organization. They are beginning to appear around the world within organizations, sometimes as an alternative to anonymous hot-lines in countries where these are considered inappropriate or are illegal, and in addition to hot lines because ombuds offices typically receive many more calls than do hot lines.(See Charles L. Howard, The Organizational Ombudsman: Origins, Roles and Operations, a Legal Guide, ABA, 2010).

Since the 1960s, the profession has grown in the United States, and Canada, particularly in corporations, universities and government agencies. This current model, sometimes referred to as an organizational ombudsman, works as a designated neutral party, one who is high-ranking in an organization, but who is not considered part of executive management in the sense of being able to make management decisions. Using an alternative dispute resolution (ADR) sensibility, or perhaps more apt, an appropriate dispute resolution sensibility, an organizational ombudsman can provide options to whistleblowers or employees and managers with ethics concerns; provide coaching, shuttle diplomacy, generic solutions (meaning a solution which protects the identity of one individual by applying to a class of people, rather than just for the one individual) and mediation for conflicts; track problem areas; and make recommendations for changes to policies or procedures in support of orderly systems change.

(It may be of interest that the term appropriate, as in appropriate dispute resolution, is something of a term of art. ADR is usually thought to be alternative dispute resolution, as in an alternative to formal, rights-based processes, including formal grievance procedures and the courts. It usually is thought to include mediation and arbitration. However, the word "appropriate" in this context includes rights- or rights- and power based dispute resolution. For example, appropriate dispute resolution of a work-place assault might be a formal grievance procedure or an appeal to security officers. Appropriate resolution might also include simple forgiveness. Appropriate dispute resolution thus refers to a much wider set of processes than are usually thought to be part of alternative dispute resolution.)

One particularly important function is to monitor and pick up "new things" – that is, issues new to the organization. This is particularly important if the issue is "disruptive" in the sense of requiring the organization to review and possibly improve its policies, procedures and/or structures. (See for example:Identifying and Communicating the Usefulness of Organizational Ombuds With Ideas about OO Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness ©2010, Mary Rowe, JIOA vol 3, no 1, p7 and passim.) In recent years there have been many articles about organizational ombuds and about how they coordinate with internal conflict management systems. (See for example: http://ombuds-blog.blogspot.com/ and http://www.ombudsassociation.org/ (including the IOA publications section) and http://web.mit.edu/ombud/publications/ for many references).

An organizational ombudsman who is practising to IOA "standards of practice" is neutral and visibly outside ordinary line and staff structures. An organizational ombudsman will practice informally (with no management decision-making power, and without accepting "notice" for the organization). An organizational ombudsman typically keeps no case records for an employer and keeps near absolute confidentiality. The only exception is where there appears to be an imminent risk of serious harm, and an ombudsman can see no responsible option other than breaking confidence—but organizational ombuds programs report that they can almost always find "other responsible options", such as helping a visitor to make an anonymous report about whatever appears to be the problem.

Ombudsman services by country

Albania

The People's Advocate (Ombudsman) of the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Avokati i Popullit) was envisaged in Chapter VI of the Albanian Constitution approved in November 1998 (articles 60-63 and 134). Article 60 states that "The People’s Advocate defends the rights, freedoms and lawful interests of individuals from unlawful or improper actions or failures to act of the organs of public administration."^[4] The Parliament passed the Law on the People’s Advocate, Law No. 8454, in February 1999. The People’s Advocate is elected by three-fifths of all members of the Assembly for a five year period, with the right of re-election. The Law has since been amended by Law No. 8600, of 10 April 2000, and Law No. 9398, of 12 May 2005. The current Ombudsman is Dr Emir Dobjani, who was elected on 16 February 2000 and re-elected on 17 February 2005.^[5]

Armenia

The office of Human Rights Defender, or Ombudsman, of the Republic of Armenia was created by law in October 2003. The official website describes the goal of the office as the protection and restoration of human rights and fundamental freedoms. It receives complaints against state and local officials. In February 2004 Larisa Alaverdyan was appointed to the office by presidential decree. The second ombudsman was Armen Harutyunyan, who was elected by the National Assembly under article 83.1 of the Constitution on 17 February 2006, obtaining more than 3/5 votes of deputies, for what was intended to be a six-year term commencing on 20 February. The 2003 law governing the office was amended later in 2006, 2008 and 2010.

The current Human Rights Defender, Karen Andreasyan, was elected by the National Assembly on 2 March 2011, with 83 votes in favour to 13 against. A lawyer, journalist and broadcaster, he has worked with several human rights non-governmental organisations.^[6]

Australia

The Commonwealth Ombudsman in Australia was established in 1976. The Ombudsman can investigate complaints about the actions and decisions of Australian Government departments and agencies, the services delivered by most private contractors for the Australian Government, and oversee complaint investigations conducted by the Australian Federal Police.^[7]

There are also ombudsman agencies in each state, a number of industry based ombudsmen, children's commissioners and many other complaint-handling and review agencies, as detailed in the main article.

Austria

The three-member Ombudsman Board (German: Volksanwaltschaft, literally People's Representative) was created in 1977 as an independent authority monitoring Austria’s entire public admini­stration. It checks the legality of decisions by authorities and examines possible cases of maladministration. The members are appointed by parliament for six-year terms.^[8]

There are also children's ombudsman offices.

Azerbaijan

The Commissioner for Human Rights (Ombudsman) of the Republic of Azerbaijan is also the country's national human rights institution, accredited with A status by the International Co-ordinating Committee of NHRIs. The first ombudsman, Elmira Suleymanova, was elected by the Parliament on 2 July 2002, and was reappointed in 2010 for a second term. Suleymanova (born 1937), formerly a professor of chemistry, had been active in the women’s movement in Azerbaijan.^[9]

Barbados

Under the Ombudsman Act 1980, the Ombudsman of Barbados is appointed by the Governor-General with the approval of both houses of the legislature. The current Ombudsman is Valton Bend, a former Magistrate.

Belarus

There is no ombudsman or national human rights institution in Belarus.

Belgium

Belgium has one federal and four regional statutory ombudsman agencies, all covering the normal range of complaint-handling, investigation and mediation within the respective jurisdictions of their founding legislature.

• The office dealing with complaints against the federal authorities is the Federal Ombudsman (Dutch: de federale Ombudsman, French: le Médiateur fédéral, German: der föderale Ombudsmann). The office was established in 1997.^[10]
• The Flemish Ombudsman Service (Vlaamse Ombudsdiens}) was established by the Flemish Parliament by decree of 7 July 1998 (the Ombudsdecreet).^[11]
• The Walloon Ombudsman (Médiateur de la Région Wallonne), established by decree of the Walloon Parliament of 22 December 1994, seeks to help any person, natural or legal, who is experiencing difficulties with the Walloon regional authorities to arrive at a solution without litigation.^[12]
• The French Community Ombudsman (Médiateur de la Communauté française), created by the Parliament of the French Community by decree of 20 June 2002, is responsible for handling complaints of citizens who encounter a problem with any administrative unit of the French Community. Its mission is to promote dialogue between the citizen and the administration concerned.^[13]
• In the smallest linguistic region, the Ombudsman of the German-Speaking Community (Ombudsmann der Deutchsprachigen Gemeinschaft) was created by decree of 26 May 2009. This requires the Ombudsman to mediate between citizens and administrative authorities and seek alternative way to resolve conflicts, to settle disputes and, in some cases, to avoid litigation. In its plenary session of 17 May 2010, the Parliament of the German-speaking Community appointed Cedric Langer for a term of six years as the first Ombudsman.^[14]

Belgium also has separate children's commissioners for the French and Flemish communities. There is a Pensions Ombudsman service (Ombudsdienst Pensioenen, Service de médiation Pensions, Ombudsmann für Pensionen) at the federal level.^[15]

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Institution of Human Rights Ombudsman/Ombudsmen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is also the country's UN-accredited national human rights institution.^[16] It was created by law in 2004.^[17]

While the ombudsman's Child Rights Section is a member of the Children's Ombudsman network, there is a separate children's ombudsman in Republika Srpska.

Brazil

In Brazil the nearest equivalent to the office of ombudsman is the Hearing Officer (Portuguese: Ouvidor), usually heading a service called Ouvidoria, and each government agency defines its own service. These organisations usually lack full independence. Examples of public service ombudsmen are the Ouvidoria da Polícia do Estado de São Paulo — São Paulo State Police Ombudsman^[18] — and the Ouvidoria da Secretaria de Defesa Social do Estado do Rio Grande do Norte — Ombudsman of the Social Security Ministry of the State of Rio Grande do Norte.^[19]

Bulgaria

The Ombudsman of the Republic of Bulgaria (Bulgarian: Омбудсман на Република България) is the national human rights institution, in addition to the normal range of functions in relation to maladministration.^[20] The institution was created as the 'Citizen's Defender' (Граждански защитник) in 1998 but the first Ombudsman was elected in April 2005. Since October 2010 the office has been held by Konstantin Penchev, formerly Chair of Supreme Administrative Court.^[21] There are also regional ombudsmen (Citizen's Mediators, Граждански посредници) in most parts of the country.

Canada

In Canada the office of the ombudsman is present in all departments of the federal government, in many provincial and municipal governments as well as in Crown Corporations such as CBC and Canada Post. There is an Ombudsman for the Department of National Defence and Canadian Forces^[22], an Office of the Procurement Ombudsman^[23], an Office for the Ombudsman for the Victims of Crimes^[24], an Office of the Taxpayers Ombudsman^[25] and an Office of the Veterans Ombudsman.^[26]

There are also several independent ombuds offices in Canada, including the Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments and various child advocate offices.

Provincial and Territorial ombudsmen

While Canada has no single national legislative ombudsman, nine Canadian provinces and one territory have parliamentary ombudsmen (sometimes called "citizens' protector" or "citizens' representative") in the classical/legislative tradition, who oversee the provincial government and receive and investigate public complaints. They are:

• Alberta Ombudsman, established 1967;^[27]
• Office of the Ombudsperson, British Columbia;^[28]
• Ombudsman Manitoba, established 1970;^[29]
• New Brunswick Ombudsman's Office, established 1967;^[30]
• Citizens' Representative of Newfoundland and Labrador;^[31]
• Nova Scotia Office of the Ombudsman, established 1970;^[32]
• Ontario Ombudsman, established 1975
• Quebec Ombudsman (French: Le Protecteur du citoyen), established 1968;^[33]
• Ombudsman Saskatchewan, established 1972;^[34] and
• Office of the Yukon Ombudsman and Information & Privacy Commissioner.^[35]

Chile

Chile remains in 2011 the only country in South America without a national ombudsman office, although one was envisaged in a constitutional reform proposed in the Senate by the President in 2000.^[36][37] The 'Capítulo Chileno del Ombudsman', or 'Chilean Ombudsman Chapter', listed as an ombudsman office on the website of the Ibero-American Federation of Ombudsmen,^[38] is in fact an organisation lobbying for the introduction of such an office.^[39][40]

Colombia

The People's Defender (Spanish: Defensoría del Pueblo) or Ombudsman's Office of Colombia is the national agency in charge of overseeing the protection of civil and human rights within the legal framework of the state.

Costa Rica

The ombudsman office in Costa Rica, which is also the national human rights institution, is unique in bearing the name Defender of the Inhabitants (Spanish: Defensoria de los Habitantes). In 1993 it absorbed a former children's ombudsman office.

Croatia

The People's Rights Defender (Croatian: Pučki pravobranitelj) is the ombudsman of Croatia.

There is also an Ombudsperson for Children.

Czech Republic

The Public Defender of Rights (Czech: Veřejný ochránce práv) is more frequently referred to simply as ombudsman. The office was established in 1999. It has the traditional ombudsman role of mediating between complainants and officials in public bodies, but has no direct means or mechanisms of enforcement. Should the relevant body fail to provide a remedy, the ombudsman may refer the matter to the government. Following the death in office of the first ever Czech ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, in May 2010, former Constitutional Court judge Pavel Varvařovský was elected to the office by the lower house of parliament in September 2010.^[41][42]

Cyprus

The Commissioner for Administration (Greek: Γραφείο Επιτρόπου Διοικήσεως), usually referred to as the Ombudsman, is an Independent Authority and was established οn 15 March 1991. The office is currently held by Eliana Nicolaou.^[43]

There is also a Commissioner for Children’s Rights.

Denmark

• The Parliamentary Ombudsman (Danish: Folketingets Ombudsmand) was established in 1955 to investigate complaints brought by an individual or ex officio in all matters relating to public governance, including maladministration by central or local authorities, on a case-by-case basis and on a general scale. The ombudsman's main areas of expertise include administrative law; constitutional law; the rights of inmates in correction facilities; and access to information. The ombudsman is appointed by the Parliament of Denmark.
• The Consumer Ombudsman (Forbrugerombudsmanden) was established in 1974 to ensure that the consumer protection and marketing rules are complied with by private undertakings. The ombudsman can ultimately institute legal proceedings before the Copenhagen Maritime and Commercial Court.
• The highest representative of the Danish government in Greenland is called the Royal Ombudsman (Rigsombudsmanden) since 1979.
• In February 2011 the Danish government turned down a request from a United Nations committee to create the position of Ombudsman for Children (Børneombudsmand).^[44]

Ecuador

The officer known as People's Defender (Spanish: Defensor del Pueblo) performs the functions of an ombudsman.

El Salvador

The country has a Human Rights Procurator, also referred to as ombudsman (Spanish: Procurador para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos).

Estonia

The Chancellor of Justice (Estonian: Õiguskantsler) is an independent supervisor of the basic principles of the Constitution of Estonia and the protector of individual rights. The function of ombudsman was entrusted to the Chancellor of Justice in 1999. The Chancellor of Justice monitors whether state agencies comply with people’s fundamental rights and freedoms and with the principles of good governance. In 2004 the ombudsman functions expanded to cover local governments, legal persons in public law and private persons who exercise public functions.

European Union

The European Ombudsman was established by the Maastricht treaty, the treaty establishing the European Union.^[45] The current European Ombudsman, holding office since April 1, 2003, is Nikiforos Diamandouros, former national ombudsman of Greece. The European Union Ombudsman investigates claims by individuals or companies which reside or have their interests within the European Union against incidents of bad administration by bodies or institutions of the European Union.^[46]

Finland

In Finland the office of Parliamentary Ombudsman (Finnish: Eduskunnan oikeusasiamies, Northern Sami: Riksdagens justitieombudsman), modelled after the Swedish Ombudsman, was established by the Constitution of 1919. The Ombudsman is appointed by Parliament, and has the task of ensuring that all government departments and officials follow the law. The Parliamentary Ombudsman shares many duties with the Chancellor of Justice. The Ombudsman has wide-ranging oversight and investigative powers, has access to all government facilities, documents and information systems and can order a police investigation if necessary. If the Ombudsman determines that a government official has not acted in accordance with the law she or he can advise on the proper application of the law, reprimand the official or in extreme cases order a criminal prosecution. Partly because of the prosecutorial powers, the office enjoys considerable respect and the Ombudsman's legal opinions are usually strictly followed, carrying a lot of weight in the absence of a court precedent.^[47]

There are also special ombudsmen for gender equality, children's welfare, rights of ethnic minorities, data protection, and consumer protection, operating under the auspices of various ministries and other government agencies. Every health care provider in Finland is legally obliged to have a patients' rights ombudsman.

France

In 1973, the French Government created an office of Ombudsman (French: Médiateur de la République). A reform in May 2011 merged that office with the Children's Ombudsman (Défenseur des enfants), the equality authority (Haute autorité de lutte contre les discriminations et pour l’égalité, HALDE) and the body supervising the conduct of police and other security agencies, the Commission nationale de déontologie de la sécurité (CNDS), creating a new body named the Defender of Rights (Défenseur des droits). In July 2011 Dominique Baudis was appointed to the office by the Council of State on the nomination of the Prime Minister, for a single six-year term.^[48]

Georgia

The Public Defender (Ombudsman) of Georgia (Georgian: სახალხო დამცველის აპარატის) is a national human rights institution. The office was established by Parliament in 1997. The Public Defender is elected for a five-year term by a parliamentary majority, and must follow the Constitution and the law, as well as the universally recognized principles and rules of international law, and international treaties and agreements concluded by Georgia.

The Public Defender supervises the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, investigates violation of human rights and assists in securing redress. The office supervises the activities of national or local public authorities, public officials and legal persons, evaluates all acts passed by them and gives recommendations and proposals. The office also conducts human rights education. The current Public Defender, George Tugushi, was elected in 2009. His mandate expires in 2014.^[49]

Germany

The nearest equivalent to a federal ombudsman service in Germany is the Parliamentary Petitions Office (German: Petitionsausschuss Deutscher Bundestag), which receives and investigates complaints of maladministration.^[50] There are a number of sectoral ombudsmen, including the Ombudsman for the Military (Wehrbeauftragter des Deutschen Bundestages) and the Ombudsman Institution for Public Transport (Schlichtungsstelle für den öffentlichen Personenverkehr e.V., SÖP).^[51]

Greece

The Citizen's Advocate (Ombudsman) of Greece] (Greek: Συνήγορος του Πολίτη) was created in 1998 as an Independent Authority. Following the resignation of Professor Georgios Kaminis in September 2010, the duties of the Citizen's Advocate passed to Deputy Ombudsman Kalliopi Spanou. The Advocate is assisted by six Assistant Advocates, who coordinate the activities of the Advocate's office in the six thematic areas in which the office has authority: i) civil rights, ii) social protection, iii) quality of life, iv) state-citizen relationships, v) children's rights, and vi) gender equality.^[52]

Guatemala

The Human Rights Procurator (Spanish: Procurador de Derechos Humanos) is the ombudsman and national human rights institution.

Guyana

The Office of the Ombudsman is also the country's human rights institution.

Honduras

The National Human Rights Commissioner (Spanish: Comisionado Nacional de Derechos Humanos) is the ombudsman and human rights institution.

Hong Kong

The Office of The Ombudsman, Hong Kong, known as the Commission for Administrative Complaints until 1994, is an independent statutory authority, established in 1989 under the Commissioner for Administrative Complaints Ordinance 1988, to redress grievances arising from maladministration in the public sector through independent and impartial investigations to improve the standard of public administration.

Hungary

After 1989, the end of the communist era multiple Parliamentary Commissioner (Hungarian: Országgyűlési biztos), or ombudsman, posts were created:

• Commissioner for Civil Rights (Állampolgári jogok biztosa)
• Privacy Commissioner (Adatvédelmi biztos)
• Commissioner for Minority Rights (Kisebbségi jogok biztosa)
• Ombudsman for Future Generations (A jövő nemzedékek ombudsmanja, from 2008)

It is intended to merge the four ombudsmen into one Ombudsman for Fundamental Rights (Alapvető jogok biztosa).

Iceland

The post of Althing Ombudsman (Icelandic: Umboðsmaður Alþingis) was set up in 1987 under the terms of law number 13/1987, which deals with complaints against the government. The ombudsman's authority was expanded to local government levels in the 1997 law number 85/1997. The ombudsman is appointed for a four-year term by the parliament (Althing or Alþingi). The Ombudsman aims to safeguard the rights of the citizens vis-à-vis the State and local authorities, and to promote equality and good administrative practice.^[53]

India

The Government of India has designated several ombudsmen (sometimes called Chief Vigilance Officer or CVO) for the redress of grievances and complaints from individuals in the banking, insurance and other sectors being serviced by both private and public bodies and corporations.^{[54][dead link]} The CVC (Central Vigilance Commission) was set up on the recommendation of the Santhanam Committee (1962–64).

In India, the Ombudsman is known as the Lokpal or Lokayukta. An Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) was set up on 5 January 1966 under the Chairmanship of Shri Morarji Desai. It recommended a two-tier machinery: Lokpal at the Centre (parliamentary commissioner, as in New Zealand) and one Lokayukta each at the State level for redress of people's grievances. However, the jurisdiction of the Lokpal did not extend to the judiciary (as in New Zealand). The central Government introduced the first Lokpal Bill, Lokpal and Lokayuktas Bill in 1968, and further legislation was introduced in 2005, but has so far not been enacted.^[55]

The state-level Lokayukta institution has developed gradually. Orissa was the first state to present a bill on establishment of Lokayukta in 1970, but Maharashtra was the first to establish the institution, in 1972. Other states followed: Bihar (1974), Uttar Pradesh (1977), Madhya Pradesh (1981), Andhra Pradesh (1983), Himachal Pradesh (1983), Karnataka (1984), Assam (1986), Gujarat (1988), Delhi (1995), Punjab (1996), Kerala (1998), Chhattishgarh (2002), Uttaranchal (2002), West Bengal (2003) and Haryana (2004). The structure of the Lokayukta is not uniform across all the states. Some states have UpaLokayukta under the Lokayukta and in some states, the Lokayukta does not have suo moto powers of instigating an enquiry.

Kerala State has an Ombudsman for Local Self Government institutions like Panchayats, Municipalities and Corporations [60]. He or she can enquire/investigate into allegations of action, inaction, corruption and maladministration. A retired Judge of the High Court is appointed by the Governor for a term of three years, under the Kerala Panchayat Raj Act.

In the State of Rajasthan, the Lokayukta institution was established in 1973 after the Rajasthan Lokayukta and Up-Lokayuktas Act, 1973 was passed by the State Legislature.

The 2011 Indian anti-corruption movement led by social activist Anna Hazare includes in its demands the creation of a stronger ombudsman agency (with jurisdiction over all state institutions) through the enactment of a Jan Lokpal Bill, as an alternative to the Lokpal Bill proposed by the government in 2010.

Ireland

The Office of the Ombudsman was set up under the terms of the Ombudsman Act 1980.^[56] The Ombudsman is appointed by the President of Ireland upon the nomination of both Houses of the Oireachtas, and is a civil servant of the State. The Ombudsman deals with complaints against Departments of State, local authorities, health boards and An Post.^[57]

There are other ombudsmen established in the Republic. The first Pensions Ombudsman, Paul Kenny, was appointed in 2003. Emily Logan became Ireland’s first Ombudsman for Children in March 2004. The Financial Services Ombudsman incorporated the older offices of the Insurance Ombudsman and Ombudsman for Credit Institutions in 2005.^[58] Also established in 2005 was the Office of the Ombudsman for the Defence Forces, the first holder being Paulyn Marrinan Quinn, formerly the founding Insurance Ombudsman. An Act of 2005 created a three-person tribunal, the Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission, to investigate complaints about the country's police force. All these offices are statutory and their holders are public servants.

A (non-statutory) Press Ombudsman began work in January 2008 and legislation has been published to establish a Legal Services Ombudsman. The Ombudsman (Amendment) Bill of 2008 will provide for the statutory protection of the title of Ombudsman.

Israel

The State Comptroller also serves, by law, as Ombudsman. She or he discharges this function by way of a special unit in the Office of the State Comptroller, known as the Office of the Ombudsman. The Ombudsman investigates complaints against bodies that are statutorily subject to audit by the State Comptroller, including government ministries, local authorities, state enterprises and institutions and government companies, as well as their employees.^[59]

Italy

There is no generic national ombudsman office, but by Law no. 112 of 12 July 2011, an Ombudsman for childhood and adolescence was set up as an independent institute. Many units of sub-national government (regions, provinces and communes) have their own ombudsman (Italian: difensore civico), who are elected by regional, provincial or communal councils.

Jamaica

The Office of the Public Defender was created in 2000 by the Public Defender Act 1999, replacing the Office of the Parliamentary Ombudsman which had existed since 1978. The Public Defender (currently Earl Witter) has the typical ombudsman function of investigating and remedying maladministration, with additional jurisdiction to investigate alleged violations of constitutional rights.^[60]

Japan

Although Japan does not have a national level ombudsman, individual regions have established ones. Kawasaki became the first city to do so.

Kazakhstan

The Commissioner for Human Rights (Kazakh: Адам құқықтары жөніндегі Уәкіл), or National Ombudsman of the Republic of Kazakhstan, is Askar Shakirov, appointed in 2007.^[61] The office was created by presidential decree^[62] in 2002 as a national human rights institution, with support from the OSCE.^[63]

Kosovo

The Ombudsperson Institution in Kosovo (OIK) accepts and investigates complaints of human rights violations or abuses of authority by any public authority in Kosovo. The institution is currently led by Ombudsperson Sami Kurteshi, a former opposition activist, political prisoner and human rights activist, who was elected to the post by the Assembly of Kosovo on 4 June 2009. In October 2011 the Assembly elected five deputy Ombudspersons: Isa Hasani, Bogoljub Staletovic [from the Serb community], Shqipe Malaj-Ibra, Ibrahim Arslan (from the Turkish community) and Basri Berisha.

The first Ombudsperson, Marek Antoni Nowicki, was appointed in July 2000 by the then Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General (SRSG), Bernard Kouchner; Nowicki's appointment was renewed in 2002, 2004 and 2005 by subsequent SRSGs Michael Steiner, Harri Holkeri and Søren Jessen-Petersen. With effect from 1 January 2006 Jessen-Petersen appointed a Kosovar lawyer, Hilmi Jashari, as Acting Ombudsperson and he remained in post until Kurteshi took office.

The OIK has several offices throughout Kosovo, and participates (although not yet accredited) in the global network of national human rights institutions, as well as in the European ombudsman network.^[64]

Kyrgyzstan

The current Ombudsman, Tursunbek Akun, was elected to the post in February 2008.

Latvia

Since 2007, the Latvian ombudsman is a personalized institution literally called Rights Defender (Latvian: Tiesībsargs). Previously, similar functions were carried by National Human Rights Office (1995—2006).

Lithuania

In Lithuania, the nearest equivalent to the position of ombudsman is that of Parliamentary Controller (Lithuanian: Seimo kontrolierius), an office appointed by the Seimas (Parliament of Lithuania).

There is also a children's ombudsman.

Macau

The Ombudsman Bureau is under the Commission against Corruption (CCAC), which reports directly to the Chief Executive of the Special Administrative Region. The main function of the Ombudsman Bureau is to strengthen the supervision on law enforcement and effectiveness of public administration.

Macedonia

Since 1997 Macedonia has an Ombudsman for protection of citizens rights (Macedonian: Naroden pravobranitel). The ombudsman is appointed by the Parliament and performs her or his work under the Constitution and the Law of the Ombudsman.^[65]

Malta

Since 1995, Malta has established a Ombudsman for the protection of the citizens rights. The Ombudsman is a constitutional office, and is appointed by a resolution of the House of Representatives by not less of a 2/3 majority. The Ombudsman is an official of Parliament, directly answerable to the Speaker of the House.

Netherlands

Article 78 of the Constitution of the Netherlands, as revised in 1983, established an office of National Ombudsman. The Ombudsman may investigate, suo motu or on foot of a complaint, the actions of State bodies or other public entities. The ombudsman and deputy are appointed by the House of Representatives for a fixed period or until reaching retirement age. The office includes a children's ombudsman.

New Zealand

The post of Ombudsman was established in New Zealand in 1962, to investigate complaints against government departments. In 1975 the post was expanded, with a Chief Ombudsman and several other ombudsmen.^[66]

There is also a Children's Commissioner. New Zealand also has three industry ombudsmen - the New Zealand Banking Ombudsman, the Insurance and Savings Ombudsman, and the Electricity and Gas Complaints Commissioner who is an ombudsman in all but name.

Nicaragua

The country has a Human Rights Procurator, also referred to as ombudsman (Spanish: Procurador para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos).

Norway

• The Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud in Norway (Norwegian: Likestillings- og diskrimineringsombudet) was established in 1978 as the Gender Equality Ombud (Likestillingsombudet), the first of its kind in the world. In 2006, the Ombud was reorganised to include discrimination in general. The Ombud's task is to enforce the Norwegian Gender Equality Act and the act relating to prohibition of discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, national origin, ancestry, skin colour, language, religious and ethical orientation, and sexual orientation (Discrimination Act). The Ombud shall also enforce the anti-discrimination regulations in the Working Environment Act. The mandate of the Ombud also includes to actively promote equality for discriminated groups, and to develop new knowledge through documentation and monitoring.
• The Parliamentary Ombudsman for Public Administration (Sivilombudsmannen) investigates complaints from citizens or may take up issues on its own initiative: complaints from citizens concerning injustice or maladministration from central government or local authorities.
• The Ombudsman for Children (Barneombudet) has statutory rights to protect children and their rights. Since 1981, the Ombudsman for Children in Norway has worked continuously to improve national and international legislation affecting children's welfare. Norway was the first country in the world to establish an ombudsman for children.
• There is also an ombudsman for consumer affairs; see Norwegian Consumer Ombudsman.
• Local and regional authorities often have ombudsmen. Examples of this are ombudsmen for health and social affairs, ombudsmen for the elderly and ombudsmen for school students and apprentices at the upper secondary level.^[67]

Pakistan

In Pakistan, the establishment of an ombudsman institution had been advocated for some time before Article 276 of the Interim Constitution of 1972 provided for the appointment of a Federal Ombudsman (Urdu: Wafaqi Mohtasib) and Provincial Ombudsmen. The Constitution of 1973 also provided for a Federal Ombudsman, and the institution was eventually created through the Establishment of the Office of Wafaqi Mohtasib (Ombudsman) Order, 1983 (President’s Order No. 1 of 1983), which is now a part of the Constitution of Pakistan by virtue of Article 270-A. It started functioning on 8 August 1983. The office of Ombudsman is currently vacant, following the completion of the four-tear term of Javed Sadiq Malik in October 2010. The Ombudsman has headquarters in Islamabad and Regional Offices in Lahore, Sukkur, Quetta, Faisalabad, Multan, Dera Ismail Khan, Peshawar and Karachi.^[68]

Other ombudsman agencies in Pakistan include Provincial Ombudsman (Mohtasib-e-Aala) offices in Punjab,^[69] Balochistan and Sindh;^[70] a banking ombudsman, the Banking Mohtasib Pakistan;^[71] a Federal Insurance Ombudsman and a Federal Tax Ombudsman.^[72] The disputed region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir also has an Ombudsman office. Under the Protection of Women against Harassment at Workplace Act 2010, Musarrat Hilali was appointed in the same year to be the first Federal Ombudsperson for Protection of Women against Harassment at Workplace. The Act provides for similar offices at the provincial level.

The various ombudsman agencies participate in a Forum of Pakistan Ombudsman (FPO), and the federal bodies are affiliated to the Asian Ombudsman Association (AOA) and the International Ombudsman Institute (IOI).

Peru

The Peruvian ombudsman agency is called the Public Defender (Spanish: Defensoría del Pueblo).^[73] The functions of the institution, which was envisaged by the 1993 Constitution and was created in 1996, include combating maladministration, human rights violations and discrimination. It has 36 offices throughout the country.^[74] The current Defensora (ombudsman), Beatriz Merino, was elected by Congress on 29 September 2005 for a five-year term. The Defensoría is accredited with 'A' status as the national human rights institution.^[75] There is also a specialised Police Ombudsman (Defensoría de la Policia).

Philippines

The Office of the Ombudsman of the Philippines is empowered by the Constitution of the Philippines to safeguard the government and government-related institutions and corporations from corruption and dispense justice in the case of such offenses.^[76]

Poland

The Polish Ombudsman is called the Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich, usually translated as the Commissioner for Protection of Civil Rights, or Commissioner for Human Rights. The office also functions as the national human rights institution, and is accredited with A status by the ICC. The holder of the office from 2006, Dr Janusz Bogumił Kochanowski, died in the April 2010 Smolensk air disaster. He was succeeded by Irena Lipowicz.

Portugal

The Portuguese Ombudsman is called the Provedor de Justiça (Justice Provider), and its role is defined in article 23 of the Constitution of Portugal:

1. Citizens may submit complaints against actions or omissions by the public authorities to the Ombudsman, who shall assess them without the power to take decisions and shall send the competent bodies such recommendations as may be necessary in order to prevent or make good any injustices.

2. The Ombudsman’s work shall be independent of any acts of grace or legal remedies provided for in this Constitution or the law.

3. The Ombudsman’s office shall be an independent body and the Assembly of the Republic shall appoint the Ombudsman for such time as the law may determine.

4. The bodies and agents of the Public Administration shall cooperate with the Ombudsman in the fulfilment of his mission.

Besides the traditional routes, complaints can be filed online and there are toll-free lines for children and one for senior citizens.

Republic of China

In the Republic of China (Taiwan), the role of the Control Yuan is comparable to that of an ombudsman. However in early 2010 there has been discussion among civil society organisations of the possibility of creating a national human rights institution alongside the Control Yuan.

Romania

• Main article: Romanian Ombudsman

The ombudsman office is the People's Advocate (Romanian: Avocatul Poporului). The current ombudsman is Gheorghe Iancu.

Russia

The Russian Federation's Commissioner for Human Rights (ombudsman) position is currently held by Vladimir Lukin. The Commissioner is appointed for a fixed term by the Parliament. The ombudsman cannot be dismissed before the end of his term, and is not subordinate to any body of power, including the President or the Government.^[77]

Russia’s 83 administrative regions have the right to elect a local ombudsman whose authority is limited to that region. Fewer than half have done so.^[78]

There is also a Children's Rights Commissioner post, appointed by the President, currently held by Pavel Astakhov.

Serbia

In Serbia, the Protector of Citizens of the Republic of Serbia (Ombudsman) is an independent state authority, mandated to protect human rights and freedoms. It was introduced into the legal system in 2005 by the Law on Ombudsman and confirmed by the Constitution of Serbia in 2006. Ombudsman is elected by the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia for a five-year-term and is accountable to the Assembly for his work. The Ombudsman enjoys the same immunity as a member of the parliament.

The first Serbian Ombudsman, Saša Janković, was elected by the National Assembly in July 2007. He has four deputies, who are specialized in several fields, especially the protection of rights of persons deprived of liberty, gender equality, children rights, minority rights and rights of people with disabilities.

The Ombudsman has competence to oversee the work of government agencies, the bodies authorized for legal protection of property rights and interests of the Republic of Serbia and other bodies and organizations, enterprises and institutions which have been delegated public authority. He has no jurisdiction over the National Assembly, the President, the Government, the Constitutional Court, courts and Public Prosecutor’s Office. The Ombudsman initiates proceedings following the complaint of a citizen or on his own initiative. State administration bodies are legally obliged to cooperate with the Ombudsman and to provide him access to their premises and all data in their possession, regardless of the degree of secrecy, when of interest to the investigation in process or the Ombudsman’s preventive actions. As a result of an investigation, the Ombudsman may recommend dismissal of an official considered responsible for violation of the rights of citizens, may initiate disciplinary procedures against public administration employees, and may require initiation of penal, offence or other adequate procedure.

The Ombudsman can also act preemptively, by offering advice and opinion on issues within his competence, to enhance the operation of the administration authorities and strengthen the protection of human liberties and rights. The Ombudsman is entitled to propose laws within its scope of competence, give opinions to the Government and the National Assembly on regulations under preparation and address the Constitutional Court to challenge the constitutionality of laws.

The Ombudsman provides the National Assembly with an annual report on his work and findings as well as with other special reports.

The Ombudsman has full membership in the European Ombudsman Institute (EOI), the International Ombudsman Association (IOA), the European Network of Ombudspersons for Children (ENOC) and the Association of Mediterranean Ombudsmen (AMO). In May 2010, it was accredited with 'A' status as the national human rights institution.

South Africa

• Public Protector

Spain

The Spanish state ombudsman is the Defender of the People (Defensor del Pueblo), dealing with complaints of maladministration and having the capacity to bring cases at the Constitutional Court. There are comparable offices in the autonomous communities of Spain, as follows:

• Valedor do Pobo^[79] (Galicia)
• Ararteko^[80] (Basque Country)
• Justicia de Aragón (Aragon)
• Síndic de Greuges (Catalonia)
• Síndic de Greuges (Valencian Community)
• Defensor del Pueblo Andaluz (Andalusia)
• Procurador del Común (Castile and León)
• Defensor del Pueblo de Navarra/Nafarroako Ararteko (Navarre)
• Diputado del Común (Canary Islands)
• Personero del Común (Extremadura)

Sri Lanka

The Government of Sri Lanka has designated several ombudsmen for the redress of grievances and complaints from individuals in the banking, insurance and other sectors being serviced by both private and public bodies and corporations.

Sweden

Sweden has, since 1882, a Parliamentary ombudsman office (Riksdagens ombudsmän), the oldest surviving element of which is the Justice Ombudsman or Justitieombudsmannen (JO).

With growing attention to discrimination issues in the latter part of the 20th century there arose several anti-discrimination Parliamentary Ombudsmen: the Equality Ombudsman or Jämställdhetsombudsmannen (JämO), monitoring issues relating to gender equality and, from 1 March 2002, equal treatment of students at universities; the Children's Ombudsman, or Barnombudsmannen, concerned with matters affecting the rights and interests of children and young people; the Disability Ombudsman or Handikappombudsmannen, concerned with the rights and interests of persons with disabilities; the Ombudsman against Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation or Ombudsmannen mot diskriminering på grund av sexuell läggning (HomO), and the Ombudsman against Ethnic Discrimination or Ombudsmannen mot etnisk diskriminering. On 1 January 2009 all five offices were merged into the new Discrimination Ombudsman.

Further, the Director-General of the Swedish Consumer Agency is also designated Consumer Ombudsman, and the Chancellor of Justice or Justitiekanslern is an ombudsman of sorts.

Tajikistan

The Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman was established in 2009, and receives support from the OSCE.^[81] The current Ombudsman is Zarif Alizoda, appointed by President Emomalii Rahmon and approved by Parliament in May 2009. The functions of his office include human rights education, on which it co-operates with other public bodies and NGOs.^[82] It also works with a coalition of NGOs on monitoring places of detention.^[83]

Thailand

The Ombudsmen of Thailand or Ombudsmen for the National Assembly (Thai: ผู้ตรวจการแผ่นดินของรัฐสภา; RTGS: Phu Truat Kan Phaen Din Khong Ratthasapha) was first created in the 1997 Constitution of Thailand or the 'People's' Constitution. The name was shortened to the Ombudsmen (Thai: ผู้ตรวจการแผ่นดิน; RTGS: Phu Truat Kan Phaen Din) only by the 2007 Constitution of Thailand. The idea for such an office first appeared in the 1974 Constitution; however it was not until 1997 that the concept was entrenched. Currently there are three ombudsmen, all appointed by the King of Thailand upon the advice of the Senate of Thailand. The Ombudsmen investigate complaints by the general public against public officials and agencies. They have the power to prosecute but not to enforce judgments.

Ombudsmen are appointed to a six year non-renewable term. Thailand's three Ombudsmen are:

• Pramoj Chomongkol (Thai: ปราโมทย์ โชติมงคล)
• Phanit Nitithanprapat (Thai: ผานิต นิติทัณฑ์ประภาศ)
• Siracha Chareanpanit (Thai: ศรีราชา เจริญพานิช)

The Office of the Ombudsman in Thailand appears online at http://www.ombudsman.go.th/. Links are on the site between Thai and English. Procedures are also indicated.

Ukraine

The office of ombudsman, or Commissioner for Human Rights, in Ukraine was instituted in 1998. Nina Karpachova was elected to the office for a five-year term by secret ballot in the Ukrainian Parliament, and has since been re-elected twice, most recently on 8 February 2007. Under Article 55 of the 1996 Constitution, "Everyone has the right to appeal for the protection of his her rights to the Ukrainian Parliament Commissioner for Human Rights". Article 101 provides "The Ukrainian Parliament Commissioner for Human Rights exercises parliamentary control over the observance of constitutional human and citizens’ rights and freedoms."^[84] The legal basis of the office, which is also Ukraine's national human rights institution, is set out in Law 767/97, which refers to the office as the "Authorised Human Rights Representative" of the Parliament.^[85]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom a post of Ombudsman is attached to the Westminster Parliament with additional posts at the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, the Northern Ireland Assembly and other government institutions. The office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration was created in 1967, covering the activities of central government departments. A separate (National) Health Service ombudsman was subsequently created, but this office has to date always been held by the same person and the two offices are usually referred to as the Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman. This Ombudsman will usually investigate complaints referred to him or her by a Member of Parliament where there has been evidence of "maladministration" having occurred which has resulted in an "unremedied injustice". Complaints to the Ombudsman are subject to a "time bar" – this means that the Ombudsman may determine a complaint to be out of jurisdiction if too much time has passed between the event or course of events being complained about and the complaint being received by the Ombudsman.

The Local Government Ombudsman (formally the Commission for Local Government Administration – there are three Commissioners) for England and Wales was created in 1973, and a similar office for Scotland in 1974; since then, a variety of other public and private sector-specific ombudsmen have been created, along with the Northern Ireland Ombudsman.

Other official ombudsman services in the United Kingdom

• Children's commissioners exist in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland.
• Energywatch
• Financial Ombudsman Service: provides consumers and small businesses with a free, independent service for resolving disputes with Banks, Insurance and other financial organisations (includes private medical insurance)
• Financial Services Ombudsman Scheme for the Isle of Man
• Housing Ombudsman Service (HOS): An independent service dealing with complaints against landlords & agents, and other housing disputes
• Judicial Appointments and Conduct Ombudsman
• Legal Services Ombudsman
• Office of the Telecommunications Ombudsman (Otelo): an ombudsman service for public communication providers and their customers
• Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland
• Pensions Ombudsman investigates and decides complaints and disputes about private, civil service and other public sector pensions and pension schemes
• Prisons and Probation Ombudsman
• Public Services Ombudsman for Wales
• Scottish Legal Services Ombudsman
• Scottish Public Services Ombudsman

Industry and organizational ombudsmen

• Estate Agents Ombudsman
• Financial Ombudsman Service
• Furniture Ombudsman
• Removals Industry Ombudsman Scheme
• Double Glazing & Conservatory Ombudsman (DGCOS) www.dgcos.org.uk

United States

There is no single federal ombudsman agency in the United States, where the function of handling complaints against public authorities has traditionally rested with members of Congress. There are, however, a number of federal bodies that undertake functions associated elsewhere with the ombudsman.

There are also ombudsman agencies in some federal Departments, and in some states; several industry based ombudsmen, and many other complaint-handling and review agencies, as detailed in the main article.

Uzbekistan

The office of the Authorized Person of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan for Human Rights, or Ombudsman, was created in 1995, by an initiative of the President of Uzbekistan, but subsequently through legislation enacted in 1997, reinforced by a constitutional reform in 2003 and a new ombudsman statute in 2004. The current Authorised Person, appointed by the Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan (Oliy Majlis), is Sayora Rashidova. The office was one of the first ombudsmen established in the Commonwealth of Independent States, and receives technical support from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe.^[86]

Venezuela

The 1999 Constitution of Venezuela created a new position, the Public Defender (Defensoría del Pueblo (Venezuela)), an office with the authority to check the activities of the presidency, the National Assembly, and the constitution.

In fiction

In the science fiction television series Babylon 5, the arbiters aboard space station Babylon 5 who preside over cases stemming from public complaints are referred to as ombuds (this is both the singular and plural designation), the gender-neutral title for an ombudsman. Just as with their modern European counterparts, the ombuds only preside over public cases, including robbery, assault, and murder, and do not interpret law as a regular judiciary does.

John Perry, the protagonist of The Last Colony, written by John Scalzi starts off the novel as an ombudsman for a newly-settled human colony.

The webcomic PvP ran a story arc starting at the beginning of March 2009 parodying the comic series and movie Watchmen called The Ombudsmen.

The Fox News parody show, Red Eye with Greg Gutfeld, meets three times per episode with "TV's Andy Levy, Ombudsman".

See also

• Children's Ombudsman
• Complaint system
• Information Commissioner
• National human rights institutions

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Riksdagens Ombudsmän - JO: Historik
2. ^ Pickl, V. (1987). "Islamic Roots of Ombudsman Systems". The Ombudsman Journal 
3. ^ Aristotle's Political Theory
4. ^ [1] Article 60, Albanian Constitution
5. ^ [2] Albanian Ombudsman website
6. ^ [3] Armenian Ombudsman website
7. ^ [4] Australian Commonwealth Ombudsman website
8. ^ [5] Austrian Ombudsman Board website
9. ^ [6] Azerbaijan Ombudsman website
10. ^ [7] Belgian Federal Ombudsman website
11. ^ [8] Flemish Ombudsman website
12. ^ [9] Walloon Ombudsman website
13. ^ [10] Belgian French Community ombudsman website
14. ^ [11] German-Speaking Community Ombudsman website
15. ^ [12] Belgian Pensions Ombudsman website
16. ^ [13] Bosnia and Herzegovina Ombudsmen website
17. ^ [14] Bosnia and Herzegovina Ombudsman legislation
18. ^ [15] São Paulo Police Ombudsman website
19. ^ [16] Rio Grande do Norte Social Security Ombudsman website
20. ^ [17] Bulgarian Ombudsman website
21. ^ [18] Sofia News Agency report on Bulgarian ombudsman appointment
22. ^ [19] Canadian forces ombudsman website
23. ^ [20] Office of the Procurement Ombudsman Website
24. ^ [21] Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime Website
25. ^ [22] Office of the Taxpayers' Ombudsman Website
26. ^ [23] Canadian Veterans ombudsman website
27. ^ [24] Alberta Ombudsman website
28. ^ [25] BC Ombudsman website
29. ^ [26] Ombudsman Manitoba website
30. ^ [27] New Brunswick Ombudsman website
31. ^ [28] Newfoundland/Labrador ombudsman website
32. ^ [29] Nova Scotia ombudsman website
33. ^ [30] Quebec ombudsman website
34. ^ [31] Ombudsman Saskatchewan website
35. ^ [32] Yukon ombudsman website
36. ^ http://www.atinachile.cl/node/19760 [Spanish], retrieved 30 December 2011
37. ^ http://defensorpueblo.blogspot.com/2011/08/el-defensor-del-pueblo-una-solucion-muy.html [Spanish], retrieved 30th of December 2011
38. ^ http://www.portalfio.org/inicio/inicio/ombudsman-de-tu-pais.html [Spanish], retrieved 30 December 2011
39. ^ http://www.wiserearth.org/organization/view/0b77ba78cd679639082a8f10989ceabe [Spanish], retrieved 30 December 2011
40. ^ http://www.atinachile.cl/node/19760 [Spanish], retrieved 30 December 2011
41. ^ [33] Czech ombudsman website
42. ^ Radio Prague report on ombudsman election 2010
43. ^ [34] Cyprus Ombudsman website
44. ^ [35] Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Denmark, 4 February 2011
45. ^ EuroParl.org.uk Constitution of the European Union, Article III-335 (provisions establishing EU ombudsman)
46. ^ Ombudsman.europa.eu European Ombudsman website
47. ^ [36] Finnish Parliamentary Ombudsman website
48. ^ [37] Website of the French ombudsman
49. ^ [38] Georgian Ombudsman website
50. ^ [39] Bundestag petitions office website
51. ^ [40] German transport ombudsman website
52. ^ [41] Greek Ombudsman website
53. ^ [42] Iceland Ombudsman website
54. ^ "LIST OF AGENCIES IN GOVERNMENT OF INDIA FIGHTING CORRUPTION" (pdf). Central Vigilance Commission, Government of India. http://cvc.nic.in/vscvc/guideanx7.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-21. 
55. ^ "Lokpal bill to cover PM". CNN-IBN. Nov 21, 2010. http://ibnlive.in.com/news/lokpal-bill-to-cover-pm/135533-3.html. 
56. ^ [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA26Y1980.html Irish Ombudsman legislation
57. ^ [43] Irish Ombudsman website
58. ^ [http://www.financialombudsman.ie/ Irish financial ombudsman website
59. ^ [44] Israeli State Comptroller website
60. ^ [45] Jamaica Public Defender site
61. ^ [46] Kazakh Ombudsman website
62. ^ [47] Kazakhstan presidential decree creating Ombudsman
63. ^ [48] Kazakh Ombudsman history page
64. ^ [49] Kosovo Ombudsperson website
65. ^ [http://www.ombudsman.mk/default.aspx?Lan=EN Macedonian ombudsman website
66. ^ [50] New Zealand Ombudsmen site
67. ^ [51][52]
68. ^ [53] Website of the Federal Ombudsman, Pakistan
69. ^ [http://www.ombudsmanpunjab.gov.pk/ Ombudsman Punjab website
70. ^ [http://www.mohtasibsindh.gov.pk/ Mohtasib Sindh website
71. ^ [54] Banking Mohtasib Pakistan website
72. ^ [55] Federal Tax Ombudsman Pakistan website
73. ^ Peruvian ombudsman website
74. ^ [56] Oxford University research paper on Peruvian Defensoría
75. ^ NHRI Forum website
76. ^ Office of the Ombudsman of the Philippines
77. ^ Institute of the Commissioner for Human Rights (in Russian)
78. ^ St Petersburg Times: Controversial Ombudsman Mikhailov Dismissed (October 23, 2009)
79. ^ Valedor do Pobo
80. ^ Ararteko
81. ^ [57] website of the OSCE Office in Tajikistan
82. ^ [58] Statement of Tajik ombudsman to 2010 OSCE Review Conference
83. ^ [59] Report on detention monitoring training in Tajikistan
84. ^ Ukrainian Ombudsman website
85. ^ Ukrainian Ombudsman statute 1997
86. ^ http://ombudsman.uz/

External links

Look up ombudsman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• JPGMOnline.com - 'The role of the ombudsman in biomedical journals', Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, Vol 48, No 4, pp 292–296, 2002
• OmbudsmanWatch.org - 'Local Government Ombudsman Watch' (United Kingdom)
• POGO.org - 'EPA Ombudsman Resigns: Accountability in Handling of Superfund Sites Threatened', Project on Government Oversight (April 22, 2002)
• Transparency.org - 'What is an Ombudsman'
• DCAF Backgrounder - 'Military Ombudsman, (May 2005)'
• Ombuds Blog - 'News and Information For and About Organizational Ombuds'
• Ombudsman Institutions and Minority Issues, Study by the European Centre for Minority Issues
• SÖP Schlichtungsstelle für den öffentlichen Personenverkehr e.V., Ombudsman Institution of Public Transport in Germany
• Web page on Ombudsman for Local Governments in Kerala

International and regional ombudsman associations

• International Ombudsman Institute (IOI) - representing 120 independent ombudsman institutions around the globe
• [61] - Asian Ombudsman Association (AOA) - "To promote the concepts of Ombudsmanship and to encourage its development in Asia"
• Association of Mediterranean Ombudsmen (AMO)
• ANZOA - Australian and New Zealand Ombudsman Association (ANZOA)
• BIOA - British and Irish Ombudsman Association (BIOA)
• European Network of Ombudspersons for Children (ENOC)
• ENOHE - European Network of Ombudsmen in Higher Education (ENOHE), Universiteit van Amsterdam
• European Ombudsman Institute European Ombudsman Institute
• IOA - International Ombudsman Association (IOA)
• ONO - Organization of News Ombudsmen (ONO)

Ombudsman directories

• IOI - International Ombudsman Institute (international directory of ombudsmen)
• Ombuds Blog includes lists of organizational ombuds offices in corporations, academic, governmental, and other organizations