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pacifier

 
Dictionary: pac·i·fi·er   (păs'ə-fī'ər) pronunciation
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n.
A rubber or plastic nipple or teething ring for a baby to suck or chew on.


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How Products are Made: How is a pacifier made?
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Background

A pacifier is a form of an artificial nipple on which the baby or child sucks. Fluids do no pass through the pacifier, rather, the action of sucking on the nipple is thought to soothe or calm the baby, quieting the baby, and even alleviating the burning and itching of the gums during teething.

Pacifiers generally have three parts: the nipple; the guard, which rests on the baby's lips; and the ring attached at the center of the guard. Artificial nipples are always made of a material that closely simulates a mother's nipple. It is usually of latex or silicone and is occasionally of hard plastic. The guard is firmly attached to the nipple and prevents ingestion of the nipple by the child. Increasingly, pacifier manufacturers believe that the nipple and mouth guard should be of one material and molded together so that the two do not have to be fused during the manufacturing process. There is evidence that when the pacifier is made of two pieces it is at greater risk for failing at that juncture and creating a potential choking hazard. This guard must have holes in it to ensure that in the event of ingesting the guard the holes permit air to pass through to the windpipe. Finally, the ring at the center of the guard must be present in order to pull the pacifier forcibly from the mouth in the event of ingestion.

Manufacturers of pacifiers must comply with extensive government regulations developed to prevent pacifier failures from choking infants and young children. Pacifiers made in the United States must undergo testing to ensure that they comply with these regulations. Even with these regulations pacifiers are occasionally recalled because of product failure. Manufacturers must test each new pacifier design extensively before production, and then keep compliance reports on hand in the event that the information is requested at any time.

History

The early history of pacifiers is inextricably bound to the development and use of the baby rattle. The two were often attached to both amuse and assuage a crying baby. Rattles were used for centuries by primitive adults for ceremonial and musical or dance use and could be of sticks, teeth, shells or pods. In addition, primitive man used rattles with bells to ward off evil spirits and even children wore bells. Romans gave children peony wood bead necklaces that were pulled into the baby's mouth for teething and to ward off illness. Such soothing bead necklaces were used for many centuries. Some rattles were constructed with a handle that had inserted into it a smooth piece of stone or bone that was used for the baby to suck upon and teethe. This end of the rattle was known as the gum stick and could be made of rock crystal, ivory, agate, carnelian, mother-of-pearl, bone, or coral, all of which felt cool upon the gums.

Coral was one of the most effective materials thought to protect children from spirits as well as witchcraft, enchantment, and epilepsy. Coral necklaces were given to babies at birth for this reason. (In some cultures a coral necklace is still an appropriate baby gift.) It did not take long to combine the coral and rattling bells into a single baby toy that was often referred to as coral and bells. These devices had a branch of coral at one end and a metal shank with bells attached at the other end. The coral was sucked on, and being fairly soft and knobby, could soothe the baby and rub against sore gums as the bells sounded and warded off evil spirits. Fairly expensive coral and bells were generally crafted by silver or goldsmiths and offered for sale in the Colonies by 1700. Sticks of cane sugar or candy were given to babies to suck upon as well. Less expensive rattles used for sucking included gum sticks of wood with small vegetable gourds or wicker or willow rattles that could be put into the mouth. The baby's own fingers or fists have been the pacifier of choice for many babies as well.

When the sap from rubber trees was viably used in manufacture of household products by the middle of the nineteenth century, nipples for nursing bottles and simple soothers were devised. In the twentieth century, with better refinement of rubber and associated materials, many companies entered into the pacifier market. Hard plastics and silicone molders produced the product without much regulation. However, the United States Consumer Product and Safety Commission soon saw catastrophic failure with unregulated two-piece and hard plastic pacifiers and has since extensively regulated the industry.

Raw Materials

Pacifiers are manufactured from a soft, pliable material that closely resembles a mother's nipple. Increasingly, doctors and safety experts are urging manufacturers to produce pacifiers as a single unit, of one material, that cannot separate and pose a choking hazard. Thus, the product is preferably molded from a single material. In 2001, pacifiers are primarily constructed from either latex or silicone, although other soft plastics can be used in their manufacture. Unfortunately, manufacturers are finding that softening these other plastics requires chemical additives that have proven to be harmful to small children, and pacifiers have been recalled by the federal government not for failures of construction but because harmful additives were used in the processing of the raw materials.

Latex is technically referred to as natural rubber latex and is produced by the rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis. The milky latex from this tree is harvested by tapping the tree. The sap oozes from the tree when it is scored, then collected and processed for manufacture of thousands of household products. Most of the latex trees tapped for sap are in Southeast Asia and South America. Chemicals are added to raw latex to increase elasticity and strength. Proteins are found in this natural material that have caused severe allergic reactions in some consumers. Most manufacturers are either eliminating latex from their products lines as a result, or are treating the latex to counteract the effect of these proteins on consumers. In addition, latex does not survive repeated "boil and cool tests" in which the product is boiled, cooled, and then assessed for its ability to retain shape and perform successfully. Latex disintegrates more quickly than other substances during these tests. This is of concern as pacifiers cannot be repeatedly boiled or washed for sterilization without risk of disintegration.

The raw material of choice for American pacifiers is silicone, more expensive than latex but of superior performance. Silicones are synthetic polymers that are relatively chemically inert, stable at high temperatures, and resist oxidation. Thus, silicone is able to survive the boil and cool cycle far better than latex and therefore superior for products requiring sterilization. Some pacifier manufacturers buy silicone that is "certified," meaning it is of a superior grade for use.

Design

The design of pacifiers is an extremely important part of its manufacture. The pacifier manufacturer's director of research gathers information that assists with schematic design. He or she looks for the latest information on babies' upper and lower mouth configuration, the role of the tongue in sucking, and how a mother's nipple works and feels during nursing. Some consult directly with medical professionals about what they believe babies need in a pacifier. When the information is gathered, the research department works with the manufacturing department to produce a pacifier that conforms to recommendations made as a result of research.

Of paramount importance is the research department's responsibility to stay on top of the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission's Requirements for Pacifiers. These guidelines spell out precisely the standards to which the manufacturer must comply. As of 2001, the "pacifier rule," as it is referred to, requires that: the mouth guard not be so small or flexible that it can be sucked into a baby's mouth; that a pacifier have no handles or other protrusions that might force the pacifier into a baby's mouth if he or she should fall on it face first; pacifiers are labeled to warn caregivers not to tie the pacifier around the child's neck; and that the pacifier not come apart into smaller parts when vigorously tested. It is the manufacturer's responsibility to design all new pacifiers with these guidelines in mind. Testing of the product is also specified in these guidelines.

The Manufacturing
Process

The manufacturing process for pacifiers is very simple. Since most are made of one-piece construction, the preferred method for safety's sake, the production occurs in one stage using liquid injection molding. Liquid injection molding was derived from metal die casting, but unlike molten metals, polymers have a high viscosity and cannot be poured into a mold. Instead, a large force must be used to inject the polymer into a hollow mold. A great deal of melt, the name given to molten polymers, must be forced into the cavity as there is some shrinkage upon cooling.

  1. First, the pellets of polymer must be melted at very high temperatures, usually 360-420°F (182-216°C). Pellets are fed from a hopper into a machine that liquefies the pellets. The polymer is now molten and ready for injection.
  2. Next, the melt is rammed into the mold at very high speed and under intense pressure, approximately 300-700 psi. The melt fills the mold, then a bit more melt is added in order to compensate for the contraction due to cooling and solidification of the polymer.
  3. Once the polymer has cooled, it is separated from the mold. This solidified part is simply ejected from the mold automatically, and the melt and injection cycle is ready to begin again. Each cycle takes between 10 and 100 seconds depending on the time it takes the polymer to cool and set.
  4. The one-piece pacifier is then inspected and packaged for shipment. Pacifiers are not considered sterile when packaged but are considered clean.

Quality Control

Perhaps the most important part of quality control happens at the very beginning and very end of the manufacturing process. First, the materials acquired for use in the product are often certified for cleanliness and to ensure that no unsafe chemicals are present. Then, prototypes are extensively tested to ensure the product complies to specifications set forth by the United States Consumer Product and Safety Commission. This federal agency specifies tests and how they are to be conducted. Testing that must be performed includes the "pull test" in which intense pressure is used to pull on the nipple to see how hard it is for the baby to ingest the nipple. Ten pounds (4.5 kg) of pressure are exerted for a period of time. Also, measurements for the size of the product are meticulously checked and rechecked. In addition, choke holes in the mouth guard must be a certain diameter according to the commission; the factory must check the size of the holes after production to ensure the holes have not changed in size or shape after manufacturing or with extensive mold use. Boiling tests are conducted to determine whether the material can withstand repeated use and whether the configuration changes after boiling and cooling. Some companies contract with an independent laboratory to conduct these tests. Results of these tests are generally held by the company in the event that anyone challenges the safety of the product.

Byproducts/Waste

When making silicone pacifiers there is little waste as the raw material is so expensive that the company seeks to re-use all flash or waste. In a mold with multiple cavities, the melt flows to each cavity using runners, which are long channels. The runners sometimes contain bits of polymer referred to as flash. If the runners are allowed to cool and solidify, the runners are separated from the part and must then be reground and transformed into pellets for reheating and melting. In hot runner molds, the runners are reheated and flow back into the system automatically. While the hot runner system virtually eliminates all waste, the mold system is very expensive.

The Future

Manufacturing pacifiers as a single unit device is the primary trend for the future. This design is preferred because it is less likely to pose a choking hazard for the child. Improvements in the types of raw materials used are also being researched. It is important that the rubber or plastic materials that become the pacifier do not contain harmful chemicals that could be transferred to the infant as it sucks on it.

Orthodontic problems often occur in children who use pacifiers for long periods of time and after they have developed their primary teeth. Research and development workers analyze the structure of children's mouths and their sucking patterns in order to develop pacifiers that will minimize the long-term effects of pacifier use.

Where to Learn More

Books

Henry Francis DuPont Winterthur Museum. Kids! 200 Years of Childhood. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1999.

Weiss, Harry B. American Baby Rattles. Trenton, NJ: 1941.

Other

"Requirements for Pacifiers, 16 C.F.R. Part 1511." U.S. Product and Safety Commission Web Page. December 2001. <http://www.cpsc.gov>.

Oral interview with Paul Dailey, Director of Research and Development of Children's Medical Ventures, Inc. Norwell, MA. July 2001.

[Article by: Nancy E.V. Bryk]


WordNet: pacifier
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Home > Library > Literature & Language > WordNet
Note: click on a word meaning below to see its connections and related words.

The noun has 2 meanings:

Meaning #1: someone who tries to bring peace
  Synonyms: conciliator, make-peace, peacemaker, reconciler

Meaning #2: device used for an infant to suck or bite on
  Synonyms: comforter, baby's dummy, teething ring

Wikipedia: Pacifier
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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
This article is about the baby pacifier. For other uses, see Pacifier (disambiguation).
A pacifier

A pacifier (also known as a dummy in Britain and Australia) is a rubber, plastic, or silicone nipple given to an infant or other young child to suck upon. In its standard appearance it has a teat, mouth shield, and handle. The mouth shield and/or the handle is large enough to avoid the danger of the child choking on it or swallowing it.

Contents

History

Baby Comforter design – 1900

There is a long history of parents giving their children items to suck on in order to comfort them. In the 1800s, the expression "born with a silver spoon in his mouth" could be taken almost literally silver soothers/teethers were often given to babies born to wealth. Other expensive materials were also used, with mother-of-pearl or coral being thought to ward off sickness. Coral was believed to guard against all kinds of evil,[1] and in England in the 17th–19th centuries, a coral meant a teething toy made of coral, ivory or bone, often mounted in silver as the handle of a rattle.[2] A museum curator has suggested that these substances were used as "sympathetic magic"[3] and that the animal bone could symbolise animal strength to help the child cope with pain.

Tied-cloth "pacifier" – 1506

Pacifiers were a development of hard teething rings, but they were also a substitute for the softer sugar tits, sugar-teats or sugar-rags[4] which had been in use in 19th century America. A writer in 1873 described a "sugar-teat" made from "a small piece of old linen" with a "spoonful of rather sandy sugar in the centre of it", "gathered ... up into a little ball" with a thread tied tightly around it.[5] Rags with foodstuffs tied inside were also given to babies in many parts of Northern Europe and elsewhere. In some places a lump of meat or fat was tied in cloth, and sometimes the rag was moistened with brandy. German-speaking areas might use Lutschbeutel: cloth wrapped round sweetened bread, or maybe poppy-seeds. A Madonna and child painted by Dürer in 1506[6] shows one of these tied-cloth "pacifiers" in the baby's hand.[7]

Pacifiers were settling into their modern form around 1900 when the first teat, shield and handle design was patented in the US as a "baby comforter".[8] Rubber had been used in flexible teethers sold as "elastic gum rings" for British babies in the mid-1800s,[9] and also used for feeding-bottle teats. In 1902 Sears Roebuck advertised a "new style rubber teething ring, with one hard and one soft nipple",[10] and in 1909 someone calling herself "Auntie Pacifier" wrote to the New York Times to warn of the "menace to health" (she meant dental health) of "the persistent, and, among poorer classes, the universal sucking of a rubber nipple sold as a 'pacifier'."[11] In England too, dummies were seen as something the "poorer classes" would use, and associated with poor hygiene. In 1914 a London doctor complained about "the dummy teat": "If it falls on the floor it is rubbed momentarily on the mother's blouse or apron, lipped by the mother and replaced in the baby's mouth."[12]

Early pacifiers were manufactured with a choice of black, maroon or white rubber, though the white rubber of the day contained a certain amount of lead. Binky (with a y) was first used as a brand name for pacifiers and other baby products in about 1935 and is currently owned by Playtex Products, Inc. as a trademark in the U.S. (and a number of other countries).[13]

Problems caused by use

If a pacifier is dipped in a sugary substance like syrup or honey (a practice employed by some, and perhaps related to the outdated sugar tit) it may cause dental caries in emerging teeth. Feeding honey to infants is also dangerous due to the risk of botulism.

Infants may use pacifier or thumb or fingers to soothe themselves

Pacifiers have been shown to interfere with breastfeeding, especially if introduced within the first 6 weeks of life.[14][15] On an episode of 'Supernanny', one child had chapped lips sucking on a binkie (pacifier) too long.

Children who suck pacifiers may be more prone to ear infections (otitis media).[16]

Some older infants may have delayed speech development due to the pacifier's constant presence in their mouths preventing them from practising their speaking skills.[citation needed]

Prolonged use past the first few years can cause dental problems.[17]

Problems remedied by use

Researchers have found that use of a pacifier is associated with a substantial reduction in the risk of SIDS (Sudden infant death syndrome).[18] A meta-analytic study published by American Pediatric Association in Pediatrics in October 2005 supports this benefit to 1 year of age.[19][20] However other experts while acknowledging the correlation between SIDS risk reduction and the pacifier use, questioned the causality of the findings.[21][22] Additionally some parents prefer the use of pacifiers to the child sucking their thumbs. Researchers in Brazil have shown that neither "orthodontic" nor standard pacifiers prevent dental problems if children continue sucking past the age of three years.[23]

Medical policies

The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry's "Policy on Thumb, Finger and Pacifier Habits" says: "For most children there is no reason to worry about a sucking habit until the permanent front teeth are ready to come in."

A study of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) published in Pediatrics, the journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) states that "It seems appropriate to stop discouraging the use of pacifiers." The authors recommend the use of pacifiers at nap time and bedtime throughout the first year of life. For breastfeeding mothers, the authors suggest waiting until breastfeeding is well established, typically for several weeks, before introducing the pacifier.[24]

The British Dental Health Foundation's FAQ page recommends: "If you can, avoid using a dummy and discourage thumb sucking. These can both eventually cause problems with how the teeth grow and develop. And this may need treatment with a brace when the child gets older."

In popular culture

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, it became a teen fashion trend to wear pacifiers as accessories.[citation needed] This was associated with techno music and the use of the drug MDMA (used due to oral dystonia and the urge to grind or gnash teeth while on the drug), leading to a ban on this trend in many places. In some places it is still considered a fashion.[citation needed]

Adult pacifiers

A NUK 5 pacifier

Adult-sized pacifiers, consisting of a standard baby pacifier guard but a larger, wider nipple, are used by some members of the Adult Baby community. The nipples are often referred to as NUK5s, after the NUK brand of baby pacifiers manufactured by the German company MAPA GmbH. They are sold under the name NUK Medicpro L or NUK Size 5.

Recent studies have also shown that pacifier use among adults may cut down or completely eliminate snoring.

Specialists from the University of Goettingen created a device that enables those suffering from snoring to enjoy sound sleep themselves and make sure that their family members get their rest at night as well. The device resembles an ordinary baby’s pacifier. It uses the same principle as swallowing. When a subject sucks on the pacifier, the tongue rests behind teeth. When the tongue remains motionless, soft palate no longer vibrates and consequently it prevents that annoying sound from occurring in the first place. In addition, while holding the pacifier tightly in his mouth, the person is not inclined to open his mouth.

According to one of the experts in the field of snoring Wilfred Andjelka (from the University of Goettingen), they managed to cure 7 out of 10 patients from snoring.

Prevalence of attachments to pacifiers and their psychological functions

It wasn’t until the late 1970s that researchers were able to dispel the notion that pacifiers were psychologically unhealthy and aberrant. Richard H. Passman and Jane S. Halonen at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee traced the developmental course of attachments to pacifiers and provided norms.[25] They found that 66% of their sample of three-month olds in the United States demonstrated at least some attachment, according to their mothers. At six months of age, this incidence was 40% and at nine months, 44%. Thereafter, the rate of attachment to pacifiers dropped precipitously until, at 24 months of age and later, it was quite rare.

These researchers also provided experimental support for what were then only anecdotal observations that pacifiers do indeed pacify babies.[26] In an unfamiliar playroom, one-year-old infants accompanied by their pacifier evidenced more play and demonstrated less distress than did babies without them. The investigators concluded that pacifiers should be considered to be attachment objects, similar to other security objects like blankets.

Passman and Halonen [25] contended that the widespread occurrence of attachments to pacifiers as well as their importance as security objects should reassure parents that they are a normal part of development for a majority of infants.

Notes

  1. ^ Norfolk Museums
  2. ^ OED'; Examples from the Metropolitan
  3. ^ Victoria & Albert Museum of Childhood
  4. ^ Oxford English Dictionary
  5. ^ Cecilia Viets Jamieson Ropes of Sand Chapter 2: Top's baby (1873)
  6. ^ Madonna and Siskin
  7. ^ S. Levin
  8. ^ Design Patent number D33,212 C.W.Meinecke Sep 18 1900
  9. ^ S. Levin, MB(RAND) VLR.C.P.(EDNN.) DCH, in South African Medical Journal 1971
  10. ^ Sears Roebuck catalog 1902
  11. ^ New York Times June 30 1909
  12. ^ British Journal of Nursing: The Midwife Aug 7 1915
  13. ^ According to trademark registration documents 1948
  14. ^ Sanches MTC (2004). "Clinical management of oral disorders in breastfeeding". J Pediatr (Rio J) 80 (5 Suppl): S155–62. doi:10.1590/S0021-75572004000700007. PMID 15583766. 
  15. ^ Marmet C; Shell E, Aldana S (2000). "Assessing infant suck dysfunction: case management". Journal of Human Lactation 16 (4): 332–336. doi:10.1177/089033440001600409. PMID 11188682. 
  16. ^ Dummy use link to ear infections
  17. ^ http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pacifiers/PR00067
  18. ^ Report in Science Daily
  19. ^ Do Pacifiers Reduce the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome? A Meta-analysis
  20. ^ The Changing Concept of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
  21. ^ "Pacifiers and SIDS ?", Dr. Alan Green
  22. ^ "Dr. Jim Sprott On US Cot Death Research"
  23. ^ Zardetto, Cristina Giovannetti del Conte, Célia Regina Martins Delgado Rodrigues and Fabiane Miron Stefani (2002)Effects of Different Pacifiers on the Primary Dentition and Oral Myofunctional Structures of Preschool Children Pediatric Dentistry 24:552-559.
  24. ^ Mitchell, E.A., Blair P.S., L'Hoir M.P. (2005). "Should Pacifiers Be Recommended to Prevent Sudden Infant Death Syndrome?". Pediatrics 117 (5): 1755–1758. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1625. 
  25. ^ a b Passman, R. H., & Halonen, J. S. (1979). A developmental survey of young children's attachments to inanimate objects. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 134, 165-178.
  26. ^ Halonen, J. S., & Passman, R. H. (1978). Pacifiers' effects upon play and separations from the mother for the one-year-old in a novel environment. Infant Behavior and Development, 1, 70-78.

See also

The Glot-Up, a combination mouth guard and adult-sized pacifier.

Security blanket

External links

Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pacifiers

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Translations: Pacifier
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Home > Library > Literature & Language > Translations

Dansk (Danish)
n. - narresut, fredsstifter

Nederlands (Dutch)
fopspeen, vredestichter

Français (French)
n. - (US) sucette, tétine

Deutsch (German)
n. - Friedensstifter, Schnuller

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - ειρηνευτής

Italiano (Italian)
succhiotto, ciuccio

Português (Portuguese)
n. - chupeta (f)

Русский (Russian)
соска, миротворец

Español (Spanish)
n. - chupete, pacificador, apaciguador

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - (sug-) napp

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
慰抚者, 镇静剂, 调解人, 橡皮奶头

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 慰撫者, 鎮靜劑, 調解人, 橡皮奶頭

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 달래는 사람, 진정제, 고무젖꼭지

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - なだめる人, 調停者, おしゃぶり

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) مهديء‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮מוצץ של תינוק (צ. רמריקה), מרגיע רוחות‬

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Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
How Products are Made. How Products are Made. Copyright © 2002 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.  Read more
WordNet. WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.  Read more
Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Pacifier".  Read more
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