pl.n.
A woman's one-piece undergarment consisting of underpants and stretchable stockings.
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pantyhose
American Heritage Dictionary:
pant·y·hose |
pl.n.
A woman's one-piece undergarment consisting of underpants and stretchable stockings.
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Background
Pantyhose are a form of sheer women's hosiery that extend from the waist to the toes. The terms hosiery and stocking derive from the Anglo-Saxon words hosa, meaning "tight-legged trouser," and stoka, meaning "stump" When the upper part of a trouser leg was cut off, the remaining stoka became "stocking," and hosa became "hosiery." For centuries, sheer stockings and hose were worn as separate leg and foot coverings. However, after World War II, fashion designers began to attach panties to stockings, creating the form of hosiery currently favored by most women. Although their most basic purpose is to protect and beautify the feet and legs of female consumers, nylons are also put to other uses, including supporting the legs of football players and protecting crops from dust storms. Pantyhose have even been recycled in the arts and crafts industry, where they are cut up and stuffed with fiberfill to become the arms and legs of dolls and stuffed animals.
Few early references to women's hosiery exist because any public mention of women's legs was considered improper until the twentieth century. The first extant discussion of a garment resembling today's pantyhose concerns the "tight-fitting hose" young Venetian men wore beneath short jackets during the fourteenth century. Made of silk, these leggings were often brightly colored and embroidered; older Venetians considered them extremely immodest. One of the earliest mentions of women wearing stockings appears in the records of Queen Elizabeth I, whose "silk woman" presented her with a pair of knitted black silk stockings. Admiring their softness and comfort, the Queen requested more, and wore only silk stockings for the rest of her life.
In 1589, when the Reverend William Lee attempted to patent the first knitting machine, Queen Elizabeth denied his request because, she contended, the coarse stockings produced by Lee's machine were inferior to the silk hose she had shipped from Spain. Lee improved his machine, enabling it to manufacture softer stockings, but Elizabeth's successor, James I, denied his second patent application as well, this time out of fear that the machine would endanger the livelihood of English hand knitters. After Lee's death, his brother built a framework knitting machine that remained unrivalled for several hundred years.
When William Cotton invented the first automated knitting machine in 1864, he incorporated the key features of Lee's design, notably the spring-beard needle that is still used in many contemporary knitting machines. Named for the fine, open hook that projects from the needle at an angle like that of the hair in a man's beard, the spring-beard needle must be used with a pressing device to close the hook as it forms a loop. This type of needle is ideal for hosiery because it produces smaller loops and, consequently, a finer weave. Cotton's straight-bar machine created flat sheets of fabric using a weft stitch whereby a continuous yarn was fed to needles that sewed back-and-forth horizontal rows. By increasing or reducing the number of needles used to knit different portions of a stocking, workers could vary the thickness of the garment: more needles produced thicker fabric. Stitching began at the top of the stocking with a welt, or thick strip to which women could attach garters. To accommodate the feet and ankles, the stocking fabric was thinned at the bottom, although the fabric at the heel remained thick, for cushioning purposes. After it was removed from Cotton's machine, the fabric was manually shaped and seamed up the back to produce so-called full-fashioned stockings.
Also produced during the mid-nineteenth century, the first seamless stockings were made on circular machines that knitted tubes of fabric to which separate foot and toe pieces were subsequently attached. Although these stockings were more attractive in that they featured no visible seams, they bagged at the knees and ankles because circular machines could not add or drop stitches like the Lee and Cotton machines. It was not until the World War II era that two developments made possible better-fitting stockings. First, circular machines were improved so that they could knit stockings in one piece. Still more significant was the DuPont Company's invention of a synthetic fiber called nylon. After being sewn into a tube, nylon fabric could be heated and formed into a shape that it would thereafter retain through numerous stretchings and washings. Hosiery made from this revolutionary fabric was introduced to the general population in 1940, and its immediate popularity soon rendered the word "nylons" synonymous with hosiery.
However, the war that had accelerated the development of nylon also increased the demand for it, so, during the early forties, the hosiery industry offered socks instead of stockings. The anklet, a short cotton sock, became the temporary replacement favored by most women, particularly the young consumers known as "bobby-soxers." Yet, when the war ended and nylon was once again available for consumer uses, most women returned to nylon stockings. During the sixties, decreasing skirt lengths necessitated longer stockings, and fashion designers created what we now know as pantyhose by attaching panties to hosiery. In addition to accommodating all hemline fluctuations, pantyhose don't need to be held up with the garters and garter belts previously used to secure stockings. Nylons have become a fashion accessory that few women are willing to do without. This is especially true in the white-collar workforce, where they are considered an essential part of appropriate office attire.
Raw Materials
Pantyhose are generally made from a nylon-based blend of synthetic fibers. The nylon most commonly used—Nylon 6,6—is made from adipic acid, an organic acid, and hexamethylene diamine, an organic base, which are chemically combined to form a nylon salt. Because nylon is a plastic material—actually the first thermoplastic fiber ever used—the salt must undergo polymerization. In this process, different molecules are combined to form longer molecular chains. These chains result in a smooth, thick substance that is then cut into small shapes or pellets, before being spun into yarn. The nylon fiber's size, strength, weight, elasticity, and luster are determined during its preparation by controlling the number and type of filaments used. For example, luster is produced by adding titanium dioxide (TiO2). The resulting fiber is highly elastic and retains its shape after repeated washings and stretchings. Its resistance to wrinkles and creases, its durability, and the fact that it dries quickly make it a desirable fabric for busy women.
Today, filaments of another synthetic fiber, spandex, are frequently combined with nylon filaments to increase elasticity and achieve a snugger fit. More recently, other new fibers known as microfibers or microdeniers have been blended with nylon. A denier is a unit of measure that indicates the thickness of nylon yarn. The denier scale ranges from 7 to 80 denier, with smaller numbers indicating finer yarn and higher numbers denoting heavier yarn that will be used to make stronger fabrics. When blended with nylon, microdeniers enhance softness, hold color more evenly, and provide a better fit.
Design
Pantyhose are usually classified as sheer, semisheer, or service weight, with the weight determined by the denier and the number of needles used during production. Although stockings do not differ in shape, fashion designers will vary the color, texture and pattern of their hosiery. Much as the fashion industry offers different types of clothing appropriate for specific functions and occasions, it designs hosiery tailored to particular purposes. For example, heavier knit and natural colored pantyhose are considered more practical for daytime and office wear while sheer hosiery is saved for evening affairs and special occasions. Similarly, darker nylons are generally found on retail shelves during the winter, while paler shades are displayed in the spring and summer. In addition, some designers offer hose with extra elastic sewn in to the midriff to serve as "tummy control"; still others produce nylons with lightweight girdles instead of panties. Because nylon does not "breathe" well, some manufacturers offer hosiery with cotton crotch panels, and both toes and heels can be reinforced to deter runs.
The Manufacturing
Process
Making nylon yarn
- Nylon yarn is made in a process known as melt spinning. First, the chemicals involved—adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine—must be polymerized to form a thick resin that is then cut into chips or pellets. These pellets are then heated and pressurized in an autoclave into a syrupy solution. Next, the solution is extruded through a spinneret—a device that looks and works like a shower head, with long strings of nylon solution coming out of the holes in the device. The number of holes depends on the type of yarn desired: one hole produces monofilament yarn, which is very thin and sheer; several holes produce multifilament yarn, which is denser and less sheer. As the fibers emerge from the spinneret, they are cooled by air and then stretched over rollers to stabilize the molecular chains and strengthen the fibers. The yarn is then wound on spools.
Knitting
- Yarn is fed into a circular knitting machine, which converts it into a series of loops. Usually computer-controlled, the machine contains 300 to 420 needles and rotates at speeds up to 1,200 RPM; it takes about 90 seconds to knit a full-length stocking leg.
Seaming
- Next, openings at the toes are seamed together, and two stocking legs are seamed together to form pantyhose. Sometimes they are seamed together with a crotch. Like the other steps in pantyhose manufacture, seaming is almost completely automated.
Dyeing and drying
- The sewn product then goes to a dye machine where it will be dyed to one of more than 100 different shades. The dye machine can color about 3,500 dozen pairs a day. Once dyed, the pantyhose are taken to a compartment dryer which dries them.
Boarding
- This next step, boarding, is sometimes done before the dyeing process, depending on the desired final product. Boarding is the process of placing the pantyhose over leg forms where they are steamed and heated to the desired shape. With less expensive hosiery, this step may be completely bypassed and the pantyhose packaged in their relaxed state.
Inspecting
- Throughout the manufacturing process, quality checks are performed on the pantyhose. A statistical method is used for inspection.
Packaging
- Pantyhose that meet the inspection guidelines are packaged in a box or paperboard envelope, either manually or automatically.
Filling orders: Picking and shipping
- After they leave the manufacturing plant, the pantyhose are stored in warehouses and organized according to size, style, and color for efficient order-filling. Customer orders are filled by personnel at various "picking" stations positioned alongside a conveyor belt that carries the filled cases to a staging area for final shipping to retail markets.
By products/Waste
The hosiery industry must confront the problems all textile mills face in producing a fabric. In particular, hosiery mills must treat the wastewater generated during the dyeing phase to prevent contamination. Many of the dyes used to tint pantyhose contain toxic substances such as ammonium sulfate. To minimize harmful wastewater, manufacturers must adhere to guidelines set by the U.S. government's Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Treating the water before it is dumped into rivers has alleviated some of the wastewater concerns. Another approach has been to control the amounts of various chemicals used during the manufacturing process. Failure to measure chemicals properly can create an over-abundance of some of the materials, thereby causing harmful waste. A third idea has been to substitute less harmful chemicals when possible.
The Future
The hosiery industry currently produces almost 2 billion pairs of women's sheer hose annually. Industry analysts predict that consumers will continue to demand high-quality nylons in a variety of shades, styles, and degrees of sheerness. Manufacturers will strive to meet the consumer's need by experimenting with hybrid fabrics that combine synthetic fibers with natural fibers such as cotton.
Where To Learn More
Books
Corbman, Bernard P. Textiles: Fiber to Fabric, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Farrell, Jeremy. Socks and Stockings. Drama Book Publishers, 1992.
Grass, Milton N. History of Hosiery. Fairchild Publications, 1955.
Wingate, Isabel B. and June F. Mohler. Textile Fabrics and Their Selection, 8th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1984.
Pamphlets
National Association of Hosiery Manufacturers. Hosiery, The Opportunity Industry.
[Article by: Catherine Kolecki]
Random House Word Menu:
categories related to 'pantyhose' |
- Hosiery - pantyhose: woman’s one-piece undergarment, combining panties and skintight, full-length hose
Rhymes:
pantyhose |
Wikipedia on Answers.com:
Pantyhose |
Pantyhose (called tights in the United Kingdom and a few other countries) are sheer, close-fitting legwear, covering the wearer's body from the waist to the feet. Mostly considered to be a woman's and girl's garment, pantyhose appeared in the 1960s, and they provided a convenient alternative to stockings. People of both sexes often find pantyhose to be comfortable for wearing during frigid weather or while horseback riding.
Like stockings or knee highs, pantyhose are usually made of nylon, or of other fabrics blended with nylon. Pantyhose are designed to:
- be attractive in appearance
- ease the chafing between the foot and the footwear, or between the thighs
- keep the legs and feet warm
- hide physical imperfections such as blemishes, bruises, scars, hair, or varicose veins
Besides being worn as fashion, in Western society pantyhose is sometimes worn by women when formal dress is required. For example, the dress code of some companies and schools require pantyhose or fashion tights to be worn when skirts or shorts are worn or as part of a uniform.
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Contents
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Terminology
The term "pantyhose" originated in the United States to refer to the combination of panties (an American English term) with sheer nylon hosiery. In British English, these garments are called "tights", a term that refers to all such garments regardless of whether they are sheer lingerie or sturdy outerwear.
In American English the term "tights" refers to pantyhose made from thicker material, or alternatively to opaque legwear typically made of a stretchy material like spandex. Opaque tights are worn by both sexes for athletic activities or as utility clothing, and can also be referred to as "leggings", a term that also includes other garments.
History
In the 1920s, the fashionable hemline for women rose enough to show the legs, and sheer hosiery that covered the legs was only available as stockings. They were first made of silk or rayon (then known as "artificial silk"), and after 1940 with nylon, which had been invented by Du Pont in 1938. During the 1940s and 1950s, play and film producers were having stockings sewn to the briefs of their actresses and dancers. This fact has been stated by actress-dancer Ann Miller[1]. These garments were seen in popular motion pictures such as Daddy Long Legs.
In 1953, Allen Gant, Sr., of Glen Raven Knitting Mills developed a commercial equivalent to these hose that he named "Panti-Legs", but these were not brought to the open market until about 1959.[2] During this time, Ernest G. Rice invented his own design for pantyhose (similar to those worn today), and in 1956 he submitted a patent titled "Combination Stockings and Panty".[3] This design was adopted by other makers, and this caused disputes in American courts for many years before the patent was upheld some time after Rice's own death.[4]
Up until this time, there was little reason for women outside of show business to wear "panty hose". However, during the 1960s, improved textile manufacturing processes made them cheaper, spandex (or elastane) made them more comfortable, and the miniskirt made them a necessity to many women. In 1970, American sales of pantyhose exceeded stockings for the first time, and it has remained this way ever since then.[5]
The popularity of pantyhose grew into a wardrobe staple throughout the 1970s and 1980s. From 1995 a steady decline began, leveling off in 2006 with American sales less than half of what they had once been. This decline has been attributed to bare legs in fashion, changes in workplace dress code, and the increased popularity of trousers.[6]
While sales of traditional styles did not recover, the 2000s saw the rise of other specific styles. For example, fishnet hose, patterns and colors, opaque tights, low-rise pantyhose, footless shapewear, and pantyhose for men all experienced increased sales.[7][8]
Composition
Pantyhose generally has a standard construction: the top of the waist is a strong elastic; the part covering the hips and the buttocks (the panty area) is composed of a thicker material than for the legs. The gusset or crotch is also a stronger material, sometimes made of porous cotton, but the legs of the pantyhose are made of the thinnest usable fabrics, and it has a consistent construction down to the wearer's toes. These can be reinforced to guard against wear and tear.
Most pantyhose are composed of nylon and a mixture of spandex, which provides the elasticity and form-fitting that is characteristic of modern pantyhose. The nylon fabric is somewhat prone to tearing ("running"), and it is common for very sheer hose to "run" soon after snagging on anything that is rough or sharp.
Variations in pantyhose construction exist, such as with fishnet pantyhose. Pantyhose may also be composed of other materials such as silk, cotton, or wool.
Styles
Pantyhose are available in a wide range of popular styles. The sheerness of the garment, expressed as a numerical 'denier'/'dtex', ranges from three (extremely rare, very thin, barely visible) to 15 (standard sheer) up to 30 (semi opaque) until 100 (opaque). Examples of opaque tights showing mostly 40 denier opaque tights upwards. Control-top pantyhose, intended to boost a slimmer figure, has a reinforced panty. There may be visible panty lines when wearing high-cut skirts or shorts.
Sheer-to-waist pantyhose is sheer throughout, with the panty portion being the same thickness and color as the leg portion, and are designed for use with high-slit gowns, miniskirts, hot pants, or lingerie. Often sheer-to-waist pantyhose will be reinforced along and on either side of the seam in the middle of the panty.
Open-crotch pantyhose, sometimes known as crotchless pantyhose, does not have a gusset. Instead, an opening is in place for hygiene or pantyhose sexual-fetishism activities.
Some pantyhose have single- or double-panel gussets incorporated into them. In single there are two seams instead of the usual one, with a single one on the opposite side; with double panel gussets, there are two seams on either side.
Health risks and benefits
Pantyhose present a number of health risks and some health benefits.
- Because pantyhose are tight (thereby causing pressure on the opening of the urethra), and non-absorbent, they have been implicated as a contributing factor in urinary tract infections. Because of the risk of complications from UTIs, women who are prone to infections of the urinary tract, or who are pregnant, are often advised not to wear pantyhose.[9]
- Like nylon underwear and other synthetic materials, pantyhose trap bacteria and increase the temperature in the genital area, and so they can be the proximate cause or a contributing factor in the development of yeast infections (candidiasis) in wearers. Women who have experienced a yeast infection are counseled to wear undergarments of cotton or other natural fibers, and to avoid wearing synthetic undergarments.[10]
- The occurrence of bacterial vaginosis has also been linked to the wearing of pantyhose, among other causes. Bacterial vaginosis can result in complications for pregnant women and has been associated with an increase in the development of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) following surgical procedures such as a hysterectomy.[11]
- It is not unusual for people dressed in layers of synthetic clothing to suffer from heat exhaustion in warm environments or while exercising or working.[12] Because pantyhose raise the temperature of the body, the elderly, menopausal women, and other wearers who have difficulties regulating body temperature (because of underlying issues such as thyroid malfunctions) may find the garment unbearably warm.
- The warm, moist environment created by nylon pantyhose is also a predictive factor in the development of fungal infections of the skin of susceptible wearers, particularly in the feet, abdomen and genital areas.[13] Preexisting fungal and allergic conditions, including eczema, athlete's foot, hives and rashes are exacerbated by the wearing of pantyhose.[13]
There are also some health benefits associated with pantyhose. In cold weather, pantyhose can help keep the wearer's legs and feet warm. In low-humidity conditions, they can help prevent the legs from becoming too dry. Support hosiery can help those who work on their feet by preventing or helping varicose veins and relieving pain in the back and legs by regulating blood circulation. Pantyhose often also help prevent chafing between the wearer's feet and their shoes, or between the thighs when walking, thus helping the wearer avoid painful skin irritation such as blisters and heat rashes.
Criticism
- Unlike cotton, nylon is not an absorbent material. As a result, perspiration is more likely to remain in contact with the feet, legs and genital area, thereby encouraging bacterial growth and associated odor. Some hosiery products contain silver to help to prevent odor and sweating of the feet, thus making the wearing of hosiery a more pleasant experience. Wearing natural fiber silk stockings and tights is another means of reducing perspiration.
- For people who are either very large or very thin, pantyhose can be extremely uncomfortable and unflattering. The feel of pantyhose on large-sized women has been compared to the feeling of wearing a sausage casing, and pantyhose have been criticized for having a tendency to sag at the ankles, be too short to reach the waist, or roll down from the waist after a few hours of wear.[14]
- Some people refuse to wear pantyhose for ethical or economic reasons. Though they can cost anywhere from $5 [15] to $250[16] per pair, pantyhose are prone to tearing or laddering, especially after multiple wears.[citation needed] They usually cannot be recycled, and they are not biodegradable. Disposing of the item contributes to overuse of landfill. Burning pantyhose sometimes releases toxins into the atmosphere.
- Pantyhose have been criticized for being flimsy. The nylon fabric of pantyhose is extremely prone to "runs".
The wearer can cause a run in the hose by even such simple movements as catching the toenail of one's big toe in the fabric when the hose is put on, by catching it on a rough desk, car, and by numerous other risks. Some women apply clear nail polish to their hose to prevent runs from growing.
Example of a "run" or "ladder"
Men and pantyhose
Main article: Pantyhose for men
While usually considered to be a women's garment, pantyhose are more and more frequently worn by men for thermal protection and therapeutic relief. Race horse jockeys also wear pantyhose under their uniforms so they glide freely over the legs and waist when the jockey's body moves at a rapid pace.[citation needed] Some fishermen who surf fish from tropical beaches may also wear pantyhose to protect from jellyfish, whose stingers cannot penetrate the mesh.[17][18] In the late 1990s several small manufacturers introduced pantyhose styles designed for men to cater to this niche market.[19] The growth in the male pantyhose market (sometimes termed, "mantyhose", a term coined by the media coverage of this emerging trend), has been chronicled in a number of popular blogs that have arisen as men have become more open in their wearing of this once only feminine garment.[20]
See also
References
- ^ Robert Osborne (Host) (1997-08-20) (Television production). Private Screenings: Ann Miller. Turner Classic Movies.
- ^ Gant, Margaret Elizabeth (1979). The Raven's Story. Glen Raven. ISBN 096031380X.
- ^ US 2826760, Ernest G. Rice, "Combination Stockings and Panty", issued 1958-03-18
- ^ Tights, Inc. v. Acme-McCrary Corporation, 541 F.2d 1047 (4th Cir. 1976).
- ^ Christensen, C. Roland (1982). Business Policy: Text and Cases. R.D. Irwin. p. 161. ISBN 0256026262.
- ^ USA Today, 1 January 2007
- ^ Wellington, Elizabeth (2008-07-15). "Living | Pantyhose, once a fashion must, is on its last legs | Seattle Times Newspaper". Seattletimes.nwsource.com. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/living/2008051494_pantyhose15.html. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Women's Hosiery — US — September 2002 - Introduction". Oxygen.mintel.com. http://oxygen.mintel.com/sinatra/reports/display/id=1649/display/id=50367?select_section=50368. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Common Urological Problems: Recurring Urinary Tract Infections". Inf-hscweb.hsc.sunysb.edu. 2008-04-30. http://inf-hscweb.hsc.sunysb.edu/som/urology/urology_recurring_uti.cfm. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Vaginal Yeast Infections". Kidshealth.org. http://kidshealth.org/teen/infections/fungal/yeast_infections.html. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "STD Facts — Bacterial Vaginosis (BV)". CDC. http://www.cdc.gov/std/bv/STDFact-Bacterial-Vaginosis.htm#Complications. Retrieved 2007-12-04.
- ^ "Heat Exhaustion – Causes, Symptoms and Treatment". Articlesbase.com. http://www.articlesbase.com/diseases-and-conditions-articles/heat-exhaustion-causes-symptoms-and-treatment-481510.html. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ a b [1][dead link]
- ^ "Plus Size Lingerie Tips: How to Say Goodbye to Pantyhose Forever". E-zinearticles.com. http://e-zinearticles.com/?Plus-Size-Lingerie-Tips:-How-to-Say-Goodbye-to-Pantyhose-Forever&id=244346. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Have You Joined the Pantyhose Club? Cheap Pantyhose Delivered To Your Door — Silkies Online Store". Epinions.com. http://www.epinions.com/content_433540140676. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Sarah Jessica Parker Wears Expensive Pantyhose". Fafarazzi. 2008-10-23. http://www.fafarazzi.com/gossip/362630/sarah-jessica-parker-wears-expensive-pantyhose. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Jellyfish — Bay Field Guide — Chesapeake Bay Program". Chesapeakebay.net. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/bfg_jellyfish.aspx?menuitem=14426. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Jellyfish". Reefed.edu.au. http://www.reefed.edu.au/home/explorer/animals/marine_invertebrates/corals_and_jellyfish/jellyfish. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Kingsize, Not Queen: Some Men Have Taken To Wearing Pantyhose --- Mainstay for Cross-Dressers Is Boon to Athletes and Guys On Their Feet All Day Long". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ The Nylon Gene: History of Men in Pantyhose, http://www.nylongene.com/p/history-of-men-in-pantyhose.html
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Translations:
Pantyhose |
Dansk (Danish)
n. pl. - strømpebukser
Français (French)
n. pl. - (US) collant
Deutsch (German)
n. pl. - (Damenfein)strumpfhose
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (ΗΠΑ) καλτσόν
Português (Portuguese)
n. - meia-calça (f)
Español (Spanish)
n. pl. - pantimedias, medibacha
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - strumpbyxor, trikåer
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
连身裤袜
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. pl. - 連身褲襪
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - パンティーストッキング
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) مشد, جورب نسائي طويل
עברית (Hebrew)
n. pl. - גרביונים, גרבי מכנס
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