Dictionary:
pas·sion·flow·er (păsh'ən-flou'ər)  |
[From the resemblance of its parts to the instruments of the Passion.]
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| Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia: Passionflower |
Description
Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) is a creeping perennial vine with white, purple-tinged flowers and orange berries that grows to a height of up to 30 ft (9 m). First used by Native Americans and the Aztecs of Mexico as a sedative, passionflower has been a popular folk remedy for centuries in Europe and North America. Other names for passionflower include maypop, granadilla, passion vine, and apricot vine. The herb, which is generally used today to alleviate anxiety and insomnia, received its curious name from the Spanish conquistadors who over-ran Mexico and Peru in the sixteenth century. In the flowers of the vine, they saw various symbols of the Passion of Christ, which in Christian tradition refers to the period of time between the Last Supper and Christ's death. In the Spaniard's elaborate analogy, the corona in the center of the flower was thought to resemble the crown of thorns worn by Jesus during the crucifixion. The flower's tendrils symbolized whips, the five stamens represented Christ's wounds, the total number of petals corresponded to the 10 faithful apostles (Peter and Judas did not make the cut), and so on.
While there are over 400 species belonging to the genus Passiflora, the variety used for medicinal purposes is called incarnata, which can be translated "embodied." The plant is obtained primarily from the southern United States, India, and the West Indies, though passionflower also grows in Mexico as well as Central and South America. Only the parts of the plant that grow above the ground are used as a drug, in fresh and dried form.
Some investigations of passionflower have been conducted in humans; in addition, animal and other studies suggest that the herb has sedative, anxiolytic, and antispasmodic properties. The German Commission E, considered an authoritative source of information on alternative remedies, reported that passionflower appears to reduce restlessness in animals. In a 1988 study involving rats that was published in a German journal of pharmacology, passionflower was shown to prolong sleep, reduce motor activity, and protect the rodents from convulsions. Despite findings such as these, researchers have been unable to identify the herb's active ingredients. Attention has focused on flavonoids (medicinal passionflower contains up to 2.5% of these chemicals); maltol; and harmala alkaloids such as harman, harmine, harmaline, and harmalol. (The Germans attempted to use harmine as a truth serum during World War II because of the chemical's reputation for inducing a euphoria-like state.) Some researchers speculate that it is the interaction, or synergy, of several chemicals in passionflower that is responsible for the herb's therapeutic effects.
General Use
Although it has not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), passionflower is mainly used in the United States and Europe to relieve anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia. It is also recommended for the relief of nausea caused by nervousness or anxiety. The herb appears to work, at least in part, by mildly depressing the central nervous system and preventing muscle spasms. In its capacity as a sedative and sleep aid, passionflower has been endorsed by several important European research organizations. For over 15 years, passionflower has been approved by Commission E for the treatment of nervous unrest. The European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy has approved the herb for use in people who experience tension, restlessness, and insomnia associated with irritability. Passionflower is listed in many national pharmacopoeiae as a drug plant.
Passionflower is often used in combination with other sedative plants. In the United Kingdom, it is an ingredient in several dozen over-the-counter (OTC) sedatives. In Germany, the herb is used as an ingredient in sedative preparations that also include valerian and lemon balm. The standardized sedative tea formula approved by Commission E contains 30% passionflower, 40% valerian root, and 30% lemon balm. Passionflower is also used in Germany in a special sedative tea for children. The ingredients of this tea typically include 30% passionflower, 30% lemon balm, 30% lavender flower, and 10% St. John's wort. In combination with hawthorn, passionflower is also used to alleviate digestive spasms associated with gastritis and colitis.
In the past, passionflower was approved by the FDA as an ingredient in OTC sleep aids and sedative products. This approval was revoked in 1978 during a review by the agency, but not because the reviewers found passion-flower to be unsafe or ineffective. Drug manufacturers were responsible for submitting information about the safety and effectiveness of OTC medications under review by the FDA. No companies submitted data for passionflower, so the herb was denied approval because it had no sponsors.
Throughout its history, passionflower has been used to treat a variety of medical problems in addition to those mentioned above. These include epilepsy, diarrhea, neuralgia, asthma, whooping cough, seizures, painful menstruation, and hemorrhoids (when used externally). Some herbalists also recommend passionflower as a treatment for Parkinson's disease, based on their belief that the harmine and harmaline in the herb may help to counteract the effects of the disorder. As of 2000, these additional uses for passionflower are considered speculative.
In 2002, a team of American researchers published a report finding that passionflower shows promise as a chemopreventive for cancer. The scientists found that passionflower extract inhibits an early antigen of Epstein-Barr virus, which suggests that it may also inhibit the growth of cancerous tumors.
Preparations
Recommended dosages of passionflower generally range from 4–8 g of herb a day. While it is typically used in preparations containing other sedative ingredients, it may also be used alone. Passionflower tea can be prepared by steeping 1 teaspoonful of the herb in 150 ml of simmering water. The mixture should be strained after about 10 minutes. Dosage is usually two or three cups of tea a day, taken during the day and a half-hour before going to bed. The liquid extract preparation is usually taken three times a day in doses of 0.5–1.0 ml. Dosage for the tincture is 0.5–2.0 ml three times a day. Tablets containing passionflower are available in the United Kingdom. Persons who use a combination product containing passionflower should follow the package directions for use.
Precautions
Passionflower is not known to be harmful when taken in recommended dosages, though there are some precautions to consider. The herb contains two potentially dangerous alkaloids called harman and harmaline. In large amounts, these chemicals may stimulate the tissue of the uterus. However, most authorities believe that the amounts of harman and harmaline contained in medicinal passionflower are too small to have an adverse effect when the herb is used in normal amounts. Caution should also be exercised when combining passionflower with certain medications (see below).
While self-care measures such as passionflower may be effective in relieving anxiety or insomnia, these problems may be a symptom of a more serious psychological disorder that requires consultation with a mental health professional. Nighttime sleep aids should not be used for longer than two weeks without seeking medical advice. Due to lack of sufficient medical study, passionflower should be used with caution in children, women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, and people with liver or kidney disease.
Side Effects
When taken in recommended dosages, passion-flower has not been associated with any significant or bothersome side effects.
Interactions
Passionflower has the potential to interact adversely with certain medications. The harman and harmaline in passionflower may increase the effects of prescription antidepressants called monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), which are generally used to treat depression, panic attacks, and eating disorders. Passionflower may also increase the effects of OTC sedatives as well as those sold by prescription.
Resources
Books
Gruenwald, Joerg. PDR for Herbal Medicines. New Jersey: Medical Economics, 1998.
Newall, Carol A. Herbal Medicines: A Guide for Health Care Professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1996.
Sifton, David W. PDR Family Guide to Natural Medicines and Healing Therapies. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999.
Tyler, Varro E. Herbs of Choice. New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1994.
Periodicals
Kapadia, G. J., M. A. Azuine, H. Tokuda, et al. "Inhibitory Effect of Herbal Remedies on 12-o-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-Acetate-Promoted Epstein-Barr Virus Early Antigen Activation." Pharmacological Research 45 (March 2002): 213-222.
Organizations
American Botanical Council. P.O. Box 144345. Austin, TX 78714-4345. http://www.herbalgram.org.
Herb Research Foundation. 1007 Pearl Street. Suite 200. Boulder, CO 80302. http://www.herbs.org.
Other
Discovery Health. http://www.discoveryhealth.com.
OnHealth. http://www.onhealth.com.
[Article by: Greg Annussek; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]
| Columbia Encyclopedia: passionflower |
| WordNet: passionflower |
The noun has one meaning:
Meaning #1:
any of various chiefly tropical American vines some bearing edible fruit
Synonym: passionflower vine
| Wikipedia: Passion flower |
| Passion flowers | |
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| Passiflora pardifolia was only described in 2006 | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida |
| Subclass: | Rosidae |
| (unranked): | Eurosids I |
| Order: | Malpighiales |
| Family: | Passifloraceae |
| Genus: | Passiflora L. |
| Species | |
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About 500, see text |
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| Synonyms | |
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Disemma Labill. |
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The passion flowers or passion vines (Passiflora) are a genus of about 500 species of flowering plants, the namesakes of the family Passifloraceae. They are mostly vines, with some being shrubs, and a few species being herbaceous. For information about the fruit of the passiflora plant, see passionfruit. The monotypic genus Hollrungia seems to be inseparable from Passiflora, but further study is needed.
Contents |
The family Passifloraceae is found worldwide, except in Antarctica. Passiflora is also absent from Africa, where many other members of the family Passifloraceae occur (e.g. the more plesiomorphic Adenia).
Nine species of Passiflora are native to the USA, found from Ohio to the north, west to California and south to the Florida Keys. Most other species are found in South America, as well as China and Southern Asia (17 species), New Guinea, Australia (four, possibly more species) and New Zealand (a single endemic species). But new species continue to be described: for example, P. pardifolia and P. xishuangbannaensis are only known to science since 2006 and 2005, respectively.
Species of Passiflora have been naturalised beyond their native ranges. For example, Blue Passion Flower (P. caerulea) now grows wild in Spain.[1] The purple passionfruit (P. edulis) and its yellow relative flavicarpa are introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops.
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The decorative passion flowers have a unique flower structure, which in most requires a large bee to effectively pollinate. In the American tropics, wooden beams are mounted very near passionfruit plantings to encourage carpenter bees to nest. The size and structure of flowers of other Passiflora species is optimized for pollination by hummingbirds (especially hermits like Phaethornis) , bumble bees, wasps or bats, while yet others are self-pollinating. The Sword-billed Hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) with its immensely elongated bill has co-evolved with certain passion flowers, such as P. mixta.
Yellow Passion Flower (P. lutea) pollen is apparently the only pollen eaten by the unusual bee Anthemurgus passiflorae. However, these bees simply collect the pollen, but do not pollinate the flowers.
Passiflora species are important sources of nectar for many insects. The leaves are used as food plants by the larva of the swift moth Cibyra serta and many longwing butterflies (Heliconiinae). Well-known species among the latter are the American Sara Longwing (Heliconius sara) and the Asian Leopard Lacewing (Cethosia cyane). The caterpillars of the Postman Butterfly (Heliconius melpomene) prefer P. menispermifolia and P. oerstedii when available; those of the Zebra Longwing (Heliconius charithonia) feed on Yellow Passion Flower, Two-flowered Passion Flower (P. biflora), and Corky-stemmed Passion Flower (P. suberosa). Those of the Banded Orange (Dryadula phaetusa) are found on P. tetrastylis, those of the Julia Butterfly (Dryas iulia) on Yellow Passion Flower and P. affinis, and those of the Gulf Fritillary (Agraulis vanillae) on Yellow Passion Flower, Stinking Passion Flower (P. foetida) and Maypop (P. incarnata).
To prevent the butterflies from laying too many eggs on any single plant, some passion flowers bear small colored nubs which resemble the butterflies' eggs and seem to fool them into believing that more eggs have already been deposited on a plant than actually is the case. Also, many Passiflora species produce sweet nutrient-rich liquid from glands on their leaf stems. These fluids attract ants which will kill and eat many pests that they happen to find feeding on the passion flowers.
The bracts of the Stinking Passion Flower are covered by hairs which exude a sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to nutrient-rich goo by proteases and acid phosphatases. Since the insects usually killed are rarely major pests, this passion flower seems to be a protocarnivorous plant.[2]
Banana Passion Flower or "banana poka" (P. tarminiana), originally from Central Brazil, is an invasive weed, especially on the islands of Hawaii. It is commonly spread by feral pigs eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of endemic vegetation, mainly on roadsides. Blue Passion Flower (P. caerulea) is holding its own in Spain these days, and it probably needs to be watched so that unwanted spreading can be curtailed.[1]
On the other hand, some species are endangered due to unsustainable logging and other forms of habitat destruction. For example, the Chilean Passion Flower (P. pinnatistipula) is a rare vine growing in the Andes from Venezuela to Chile between 2,500 and 3,800 meters altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it occurs in woody Chilean Mediterranean forests. P. pinnatistipula has a round fruit, unusual in Tacsonia group species like Banana Passion Flower and P. mixta, with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals.
Notable and sometimes economically significant pathogens of Passiflora are several sac fungi of the genus Septoria (including S. passiflorae), the undescribed proteobacterium called "Pseudomonas tomato" (pv. passiflorae), the South African passiflora virus and the carlavirus Passiflora latent virus.
Hundreds of hybrids have been named and hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. A number of species of Passiflora are cultivated outside their natural range because of their beautiful flowers.
During Victorian times the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular and many hybrids were created using Winged-stem Passion Flower (P. alata) and Blue Passion Flower (P. caerulea) and other tropical species.
Many cool-growing Passiflora from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the Monterey Bay and San Francisco in California and along the Western Coast of the U.S. into Canada. One Blue Passion Flower or hybrid even grew to large size at Malmö Central Station in Sweden.[3]
Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating extranuclear inheritance; paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been documented in this genus.[4] The plastome of the Two-flowered Passion Flower (P. biflora) has been sequenced.
The French name for this plant has lent itself to La Famille Passiflore, a highly successful children's book series by Geneviève Huriet, and an animated series based upon it. These have been translated into English as Beechwood Bunny Tales and The Bellflower Bunnies, respectively.
Most species have round or elongated edible fruit from two to eight inches long and an inch to two inches across, depending upon the species or cultivar.
The passion fruit or maracujá (P. edulis) is cultivated extensively in the Caribbean and south Florida and South Africa for its fruit, which is used as a source of juice. A small purple fruit which wrinkles easily and a larger shiny yellow to orange fruit are traded under this name. The latter is usually considered just a variety flavicarpa, but seems to be more distinct in fact.
Sweet Granadilla (P. ligularis) is another widely-grown species. In large parts of Africa and Australia it is the plant called "passionfruit": confusingly, in South African English its is the latter species that is called "granadilla" (without an adjective) more often than not. Its fruit is somewhat intermediate beteween the two sold as P. edulis.
Maypop (P. incarnata), a common species in the southeastern US. This is a subtropical representative of this mostly tropical family. However, unlike the more tropical cousins, this particular species is hardy enough to withstand the cold down to -4°F (-20°C) before its roots die (it is native as far north as Pennsylvania and has been cultivated as far north as Boston and Chicago.) The fruit is sweet, yellowish, and roughly the size of a chicken's egg; it enjoys some popularity as a native plant with edible fruit and few pests.
Giant Granadilla (Giant Tumbo or badea, P. quadrangularis), Water Lemon (P. laurifolia) and Sweet Calabash (P. maliformis) are Passiflora species locally famed for their fruit, but not widely known elsewhere yet. Wild Maracuja are the fruit of P. foetida, which are popular in Southeast Asia. Banana passionfruits are the very elongated fruits of P. tripartita var. mollissima and P. tarminiana. These are locally eaten, but its invasive properties make it hardly worthwhile to grow at least the latter species on purpose.
Passion flower is considered a calming herb in folk medicine, and is taken as a sleep-aiding tea before bed. At least one clinic trial has found it to lower anxiety.[citation needed] It contains many potent chemicals,[clarification needed] and thus must be used with care, as interaction with certain drugs can produce unexpectedly strong effects.[clarification needed][citation needed] Also, due to the taxonomic diversity of Passiflora being severely understudied (only about 1% of all passion flower species have been analysed in some detail), it cannot be assumed that all members of this genus produce the same effects, or in similar dosages.
P. incarnata (maypop) leaves and roots have a long history of use among Native Americans in North America and were adapted by the European colonists. The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a tea that is used to treat insomnia, hysteria, and epilepsy, and is also valued for its painkilling properties.[5] P. edulis (passion fruit) and a few other species are used in Central and South America for similar purposes. Once dried, the leaves can also be smoked.
Many species have been found to contain beta-carboline harmala alkaloids.[6][7] which are MAO inhibitors with anti-depressant properties. The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots are often more potent and have been used to enhance the effects of mind-altering drugs. The most common of these alkaloids is harman (1-methyl-9H-b-carboline), but harmaline (4,9-Dihydro-7-methoxy-1-methyl-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole), harmalol (1-methyl-2,3,4,9-tetrahydropyrido[3,4-b]indol-7-one), harmine (7-Methoxy-1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole) and harmol[clarification needed] were found.[6][7] The species known to bear such alkaloids include: P. actinea, P. alata (winged-stem passion flower), P. alba, P. bryonoides (cupped passion flower), P. caerulea (blue passion flower), P. capsularis, P. decaisneana, P. edulis (passion fruit), P. eichleriana, P. foetida (stinking passion flower), P. incarnata (maypop), P. quadrangularis (giant granadilla), P. ruberosa, P. subpeltata and P. warmingii[6][7]
Other compounds found in passion flowers are coumarins (e.g. scopoletin and umbelliferone), maltol, phytosterols (e.g. lutenin) and cyanogenic glycosides (e.g. gynocardin) which render some species, i.e. P. adenopoda, somewhat poisonous. Many flavonoids and their glycosides have been found in Passiflora, including apigenin, benzoflavone, homoorientin, 7-isoorientin, isoshaftoside, isovitexin, kaempferol, lucenin, luteolin, n-orientin, passiflorine (named after the genus), quercetin, rutin, saponaretin, saponarin, shaftoside, vicenin and vitexin. Maypop, Blue Passion Flower (P. caerulea), and perhaps others contain chrysin, a flavone with confirmed anxiolytic and anti-inflammatory, supposed aromatase inhibitor properties. Also documented to occur at least in some Passiflora in quantity are the hydrocarbon nonacosane and the anthocyanidin pelargonidin-3-diglycoside.[8][6][7]
As regards organic acids, the genus is rich in formic, butyric, linoleic, linolenic, malic, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids as well as phenolic compounds, and the amino acid α-alanine. Esters like ethyl butyrate, ethyl caproate, n-hexyl butyrate and n-hexyl caproate give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. Sugars, contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d-fructose, d-glucose and raffinose. Among enzymes, Passiflora was found to be rich in catalase, pectin methylesterase and phenolase.[6][7]
The medical utility of very few species of Passiflora has been scientifically studied.[7] In initial trials for treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, maypop extract performed as well as oxazepam but with fewer short-term side effects. It was recommended to follow up with long-term studies.[9]
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This section requires expansion. |
One study on mice showed that Passiflora alata has a genotoxic (DNA-damaging) effect on cells.[10]
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Popularly, passion flowers and especially passion fruit are frequently used with sexual or romantic innuendo, giving rise to such uses as a one-time soft drink named Purple Passion. The "Passion" in "passion flower" does not refer to sex and love, however, but to the passion of Jesus in Christian theology. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of Jesus and especially his crucifixion:
The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since that time. In Spain, it is known as espina de Cristo ("Christ's thorn"). German names[11] include Christus-Krone ("Christ's crown"), Christus-Strauss ("Christ's bouquet"[12]), Dorn-Krone ("crown of thorns"), Jesus-Leiden ("Jesus' passion"), Marter ("passion"[13]) or Muttergottes-Stern ("Mother of God's star"[14]).
Outside the Christian heartland, the regularly-shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a clock; in Israel they are known as "clock-flower" (שעונית), and in Japan they are called tokeisō (時計草, "clock plant"). In Hawaiian, they are called lilikoʻi; lī is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a shoelace, and liko means "to spring forth leaves".[15]
In India, passionflowers are called rakhi flowers. The flower's filaments remind of the rakhi bracelets, worn at the festival of Raksha Bhandan celebrated there.
In northern Peru and Bolivia, the banana passionfruits are known as tumbos. This is one possible source of the name of the Tumbes region of Peru.
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Copyrights:
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 | Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. Copyright © 2005 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/. Read more |
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| WordNet. WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Passion flower". Read more |
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