Peace

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The word shalom, peace, occurs over 500 times in the OT, in both verb and noun form. Although much research has gone into the search for an understanding of its basic meaning, no unanimous conclusion has been reached. Clearly it is not merely the opposite of war (Ecc 3:8), and it is more comprehensive than "wholeness" (Hebrew shalem). It relates to the spheres of law, the cult and the social order, as well as to the military-political realms. Peace in the OT refers primarily to a state which allows the optimum conditions for life to unfold. When that happens, health and prosperity, freedom and security all exist together.

The Hebrews saw peace as part of the original plan of God. When peace was not manifest they called the existing condition chaos.

The Hebrews lived with this tension between peace and chaos, and although they affirmed that the Lord is peace (Judg 6:24) and recognized peace as a gift of God, they also saw human action and behavior, especially human unfaithfulness in carrying out covenant obligations, as the critical factor which determined whether there would be peace or war.

The Lord is depicted as battling against chaos and in so doing he gives strength and peace to his people (Ps 29:11). Jerusalem is a special object for prayer for peace (Ps 122:6-8; 147:14) and whoever draws near to God in the Temple will participate in this peace (Ps 125:5; 128:5-6; Num 6:24-27). Evidence of God's love and care is shown by the fact that he "has redeemed my soul in peace" (Ps 55:18). King Hezekiah praises God for having, through love, brought him back from "the pit of corruption" giving his spirit peace and taking away his bitterness and replacing it with prosperity (Is 38:16ff). Whoever stands on the side of peace will receive peace and life (Ps 34:13-15; 37:37 ff; Prov 12:20). Because evil-doers do not know the way of peace (Is 59:8) and even hate it (Ps 120:6), there is no peace for them (Is 48:22; 57:21). But whoever listens to the counsels of wisdom will receive a long life and peace in its fullness (Prov 3:2) for all the paths of wisdom lead to peace (Prov 3:17). It is the meek who will possess the land "and shall delight themselves in the abundance of peace" (Ps 37:11) and those who love the law will receive as their reward "peace" and no pitfalls will beset their paths (Ps 119:165).

In the realm of worship the idea of peace plays a special role in connection with blessing. The benediction of Numbers 6:24-26 ("the Lord lift up his countenance upon you and give you peace") and the prayers for the peace of Israel (Ps 125:5; 128:6) signify that peace is a gift and comes in the form of a blessing from God. The legal, wisdom and cultic dimensions unite in Leviticus 26:1-13 where in the holiness code the promise is made that if the covenant is kept "you shall eat your bread to the full and dwell in your land safely. I will give peace in the land, and you shall lie down and none will make you afraid" (Lev 26:5-6); nor will war ravage the land (Lev 26:6-7).

The peace greeting or blessing on meeting came from the view that as people meet they pray for peace for each other. From that it developed into a more or less standard greeting (e.g., I Sam 25:6; II Sam 18:28). One can also enquire about the peace or welfare of a person (Gen 37:14; 43:27; Ex 18:7), or a people (II Sam 11:7), of a city (Jer 15:5), of cattle (Gen 37:14) and even about the welfare of a war (II Sam 11:7).

One of the primary functions of the king is to establish peace in the political realm, even if such peace is attained by war. Solomon was legendary for his prosperity because "Now the Lord my God has given me rest on every side" (I Kgs 5:4). Psalm 2 makes it clear that the way in which the king will establish this peace is through the destruction of his enemies.

The prophets attribute absence of peace to decadent living. Only false prophets predict peace but their predictions are all lies (Jer 14:14; 23:11-15; 27:9-14, 16) for they are incapable of reading the times correctly and promise peace in return for a morsel of food (mic 3:5).

For the exilic and post–exilic prophets, peace becomes an important designation of a future time when God will intervene and bring peace. The writer of Psalm 85 is convinced that God "will speak peace to his people and to his saints" (v.8) for "righteousness and peace have kissed each other" (v.10). The message of peace dominates in Deutero-Isaiah. The covenant of peace will not be removed (Is 54:10) and God's people will "go out in joy and be led out with peace" (Is 55:12), and "great shall be the peace of your children" (Is 54:13). Jeremiah also looks forward to the time after the exile, "For I know the thoughts that I think toward you,� thoughts of peace, and not of evil" (Jer 29:11). God will bring health to the city "and reveal to them the abundance of peace and truth" (Jer 33:6). When the Temple was restored Haggai declared "in this place I will give peace, says the Lord of Hosts" (Hag 2:9).

Increasingly, the idea of peace became a matter of eschatological hope. Isaiah looks forward to the time when "the spirit is poured upon us from on high� then justice will dwell in the wilderness, ... the work of righteousness will be peace; and the effect of rithteousness, quietness and confidence forever. My people will dwell in a peaceable habitation" (Is 32:15-18). Justice and peace are often seen as interchangeable. Ezekiel speaks of a covenant of peace (Ezek 34:25) which will be everlasting (Ezek 37:26).

While peace is mostly directed to the group or the community it is also directed to the individual: "Peace, peace to him who is far off, and to him who is near" (Is 57:19) but there is no peace for the wicked (Is 48:22; 57:21).

Peace for the OT writers was a personal as well as a corporate entity. It is seen as a social gift permeating community life and intimately attached to justice. Peace is always viewed as an ultimate goal of God's creation; he will bring it about in his own time and in his own way. God is to bear the major burden of dealing with the Israelites' enemies (Ex 14:14) and they can depend upon God to be their security and their peace (Deut 17:16; Ps 20:7-9; 44:7). The peace of which the OT speaks is a religious and a secular peace – but both have their source ultimately in God.

Fundamental to the understanding of peace in the NT is the use of the description of God as a "God of peace" which flourished in the NT communtiy (Rom 15:33; 16:20; I Cor 14:33; II Cor 13:11; Phil 4:9; I Thes 5:23). Closely related is the singular designation appearing in the earliest gospel tradition: "son of peace" (Luke 10:6). Here, this phrase is part of the commission of Jesus to his disciples and stands unique in the ancient world.

As the disciples go out as sheep among wolves, they are to proclaim peace by healing, exorcism, forgiving people, providing for their needs and by entering fully into the beatitude of being peacemakers (Matt 5:9). In doing so there is continuity between the life of the disciple and that of Jesus himself who made peace through the blood of his cross (Eph 2:15; Col 1:20). For this reason Jesus himself described as "our peace" (Eph 2:14) and the peace of Christ is described as beyond human understanding (Phil 4:7). Although there are statements that Jesus came not to bring peace but a sword (Matt 10:34; Luke 12:51), the normative Christian affirmation is that with the coming of Jesus peace was announced to the world (Luke 2:14; 19:38), even though the offer of peace was not accepted (Luke 19:42) much to Jesus' sorrow. The characteristic greeting of Jesus to the sinner and the oppressed is : "Go in peace" (Mark 5:34; Luke 7:50; 8:48). Moreover, "Peace to you" is the phrase with which the risen Christ greets his disciples (John 20:19, 21,26).

Linked with peace is grace, especially in the opening lines of Paul's letters, but also in the letters of Peter and in II John. Of major importance is the link between justice and peace, in which the early Christians follow the Hebrew prophets. Thus Paul defines the Kingdom of God as existing in justice, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit (Rom 14:17) and the writer of II Timothy 2:22 urges Timothy to pursue justice and peace. The profoundest relation between the two is seen by James when he writes: "Now the fruit of righteousness is sown in peace by those who make peace" (James 3:18).

The importance of peace is seen in the capsule summary of Acts 10:36: "The word which God sent� preaching peace through Jesus Christ". It is also apparent in the repeated admonitions of the followers of Jesus to "have peace with one another" beginning in the first group of disciples (Mark 9:50), extending to the early Christian communities (II Cor 13:11; I Thes 5:13) and the urge to pursue peace (II Tim 2:22; I Pet 3:11) within the community and with all people (Rom 12:18; Heb 12:14).

Peace is seen as a social reality by the NT writers. Only twice is reference made to having peace with God (Rom 5:1; II Pet 3:14). When the peace of Christ rules in the heart of the Christians (Col 3:15); there is more than absence of conflict. When that happens the true calling of the Christian has been attained: God has called them to the peace of Christ (I Cor 7:15; Col 3:16). This peace, since it has its origins in God himself, brings joy to the one who receives it (Rom 14:17; 15:13).

Peace (Eirēnē, Lat. Pax), Greek comedy by Aristophanēs, produced at the Great Dionysia in 421 BC, where it came second in the dramatic competition.

The Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens is in progress; the Athenian demagogue and general Cleon and the Spartan general Brasidas have been killed in the summer of 422 at Amphipolis, and Aristophanes anticipates the successful outcome of negotiations for the Peace of Nicias (concluded some ten days after the performance). Trygaios, an Attic vine-grower, who with his family is suffering from the food-shortage, decides to imitate the mythical hero Bellerophon on his winged horse Pegasus, and ride to heaven on a dungbeetle, fattening it up to gigantic size for the purpose. The voyage is successfully accomplished, but Hermēs who answers the door tells him that Zeus and the other gods have moved house so as to be further away from the war down below, and War (Polemos) is in charge; he has cast Peace into a deep cave, from which, perhaps, she will never emerge, and is preparing to pound all the states in a mortar. While War looks for a pestle (failing to borrow one from Athens or Sparta because their ‘pestles of war’, Cleon and Brasidas, are lost), Trygaios and the Attic farmers (the chorus) whom he has summoned, having bribed Hermes with extravagant promises of festivals and a gold cup, draw Peace out of the cave with her two attendants Opōra (‘harvest’) and Theōria (‘holiday’; literally, ‘attendance at festivals’), and return with them to Greece. General jubilation follows (except on the part of arms manufacturers), and preparations are made for the wedding of Trygaios and Opora.