pesticide

American Heritage Dictionary:

pes·ti·cide

(pĕs'tĭ-sīd') pronunciation

n.
A chemical used to kill pests, especially insects.

pesticidal pes'ti·cid'al (-sīd'l) adj.

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pesticide

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Any toxic substance used to kill animals or plants that damage crops or ornamental plants or that are hazardous to the health of domestic animals or humans. All pesticides act by interfering with the target species' normal metabolism. They are often classified by the type of organism they are intended to control (e.g., insecticide, herbicide, fungicide). Some inadvertently affect other organisms in the environment, either directly by their toxic effects or via elimination of the target organism.

For more information on pesticide, visit Britannica.com.

Gale's How Products Are Made:

How is a pesticide made?

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Background

The word "pesticide" is a broad term that refers to any device, method, or chemical that kills plants or animals that compete for humanity's food supply or are otherwise undesirable. Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, nematocides (used to kill nematodes, elongated cylindrical worms), and rodenticides. Of these various pesticides, insecticides have a longer and more noteworthy history, perhaps because the number of insects labeled "pests" greatly exceeds the number of all other plant and animal "pests" combined. Hence, this article focuses on the use of agricultural insecticides.

Since they first began cultivating crops (around 7000 B.C.) if not before, humans have devised methods to prevent insects from eating or otherwise destroying precious crops. Some cultures relied on the practice of planting during certain phases of the moon. Other early agricultural practices that indirectly kept insect populations low were rotating crops; planting small, varied crops; and selecting naturally resistant plants. People picked bugs off plants by hand and made noise to ward off grasshoppers. Chemicals were also used early on. The crushed petals of the pyrethrum (a type of chrysanthemum), sulfur, and arsenic were used in the Middle East, Rome, and China, respectively. The Chinese also used natural predators such as ants to eat undesirable insects.

All attempts at pest control were pretty much individual affairs until the 1840s, when a North American fungus called powdery mildew invaded Britain, and the epidemic was controlled with large-scale applications of sulfur. The Colorado beetle in the western United States was the next target: by 1877 western settlers had learned to protect their potato crop by using water-insoluble chemicals such as paris green. Other pesticides such as derria, quassia, and tar oil followed, but nineteenth-century pesticides were weak. They had to be supplemented by introducing natural predators, or, in some cases, by grafting threatened plants onto more resistant rootstock.

By World War II, only about 30 pesticides existed. Research during the war yielded DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane), which had been synthesized in 1874 but wasn't recognized as an insecticide until 1942. Other strong pesticides soon followed, such as chlordane in 1945 and endrin in 1951. Poison gas research in Germany yielded the organophosphorus compounds, the best known of which is parathion. These new pesticides were very strong. Further research yielded hundreds of organophosphorus compounds, the most noteworthy being malathion, which was recently used in California against the medfly.

Until the 1800s, when people began to spray personal gardens using fairly large machines, pesticides were generally applied by hand. Airplanes were not used until the 1920s, and slow, well-controlled, low-level flights were not implemented until the 1950s. The first aerial spraying of synthetic pesticides used large amounts of inert materials, 4000 liters per hectare (a hectare equals 2.47 acres). This quantity was rapidly reduced to 100 to 200 liters/hectare, and by the 1970s the amount had been reduced (in some cases) to .3 liters per hectare of the ingredient itself (for example, malathion) applied directly to the fields.

Today, some 900 active chemical pesticides are used to manufacture 40,000 commercial preparations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that the use of pesticides doubled between 1960 and 1980. Currently, over 372 million kilograms a year are used in the United States, with over 1.8 billion kilograms a year used worldwide.

Raw Materials

A pesticide consists of an active ingredient coupled with inert ingredients. The active ingredient kills the pests, while the inert ingredients facilitate spraying and coating the target plant; they can also contribute other advantages that are not conferred by the active ingredient alone.

Active ingredients were once distilled from natural substances; now they are largely synthesized in a laboratory. Almost all are hydrocarbons derived from petroleum. Most pesticides contain other elements, the type and number of which depend on the pesticide desired. Chlorine, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and bromine are most common. Inert ingredients can be many substances, dependent on the type of pesticide. Liquid pesticides have traditionally used kerosene or some other petroleum distillate as a carrier, though water has recently begun to replace kerosene. Emulsifiers (such as soap) are also added to distribute the active ingredient evenly throughout the solvent. A powder or dust pesticide will typically contain vegetable matter such as ground up nut shells or corn cobs, clays such as diatomite or attapulgite, or powdered minerals such as talc or calcium carbonate as a base. To cause the pesticide to adhere better to the plant or soil, a material such as cornstarch or flour may be added.

The Manufacturing
Process

Manufacturing a pesticide involves at least three separate activities. The active ingredient is first synthesized in a chemical factory, then formulated in the same place or sent to a formulator, who prepares the liquid or powder form. The pesticide is then sent to the farmer or other certified applicator, who dilutes it before applying it to the fields.

Synthesizing the pesticide

When a new pesticide is first developed, it is manufactured on a small scale in a laboratory. If the substance proves viable, production begins in the factory. Batch or continuous manufacturing insures a high volume, perhaps as much as 500 kilograms per cycle. Synthesizing a pesticide is a complex chemical procedure that requires trained chemists and a large, sophisticated laboratory. The basic procedure entails altering an organic molecule to form a pesticide. This may involve any of a number of specific reagents and catalysts and often must take place in a controlled climate (within a certain temperature range, for example). Once synthesized, the active ingredient is packaged and sent to a formulator. Liquid insecticides can be shipped in tank trucks or 200-liter drums. Transport of the active ingredient follows all regulations for hazardous materials transportation.

Formulating the pesticide

A formulator accepts the active ingredient, measures out the proper amount, mixes it with carrier if it is to be a liquid pesticide or with inert powders or dry fertilizers if it is to be a dust pesticide, then bottles or packages it. Liquid pesticides are packaged in 200-liter drums if a large-scale farmer is the anticipated customer or 20-liter jugs for small-scale operations. Dry formulations can be packaged in 5 to 10 kilogram plastic or plastic-lined bags. An emulsified formulation is usually concentrated to render transport easier (the active ingredient typically makes up 50 percent of the emulsified concentrate), but granulated and dry pesticides are ready to use.

Diluting the pesticide

The pesticide might be stored a short time before it is requested. When it is ready for transport, the estimated necessary amount is sent to the farmer, who dilutes the emulsified concentrate to create the amount of pesticide desired. In most instances, the final product consists of only .5 to 1 percent of the original active ingredient. The pesticide is now ready to be applied.

Applying the pesticide

There are several ways to apply a pesticide. The method with which Americans are most familiar is crop dusting, though its use is generally limited to large, flat areas. A plane loaded with 2000-liter (or larger) tanks flies over a field and sprays out the pesticide from booms. Booms are long, horizontal rods from which several sprinklers spray down. Another method is to attach the tanks and booms to a tractor and spray closer to the ground. For small farmers, the most economical method of spraying is to use one or more workers with hand-held sprayers attached to small tanks. A hand pump can be carried on the shoulder; its tank capacity is only about 3 to 12 liters. Small tanks with a capacity of around 200 liters are also used. The pesticides are applied with a hand gun. A rough estimate of the amount applied is 150 to 300 liters per hectare.

Quality Control

Pesticides are by their very nature toxic substances; hence, a great deal of concern has centered on safety. The laws dealing with pesticide safety are very strict and will become even stricter in the future. Besides legal restrictions, pesticides are also subject to stringent quality control standards like any other manufactured product.

Most large pesticide manufacturers have highly developed quality control laboratories that test each pesticide for potency, emulsification, density, color, pH, particle size (if a dust), and suspension (if a liquid). If the company makes more than one pesticide, the product's identity must also be verified. A pesticide must be stable, easy to apply, and easy to store. Shelf-life must extend past one year. In accelerated tests, the pesticide is subjected to high temperatures for a short period, then checked for effectiveness. A typical pesticide is 95 percent pure. Labels must be easy to read and meet all regulations. The manufacturer keeps files for each raw material, active ingredient, formulation, and packaged item, and samples are stored for three years.

Today's pesticides, when used properly, are very safe. Farmers who apply their own pesticides must be trained by the U.S. Agricultural Extension Service and certified by the state department of agriculture before they can purchase pesticides. Commercial applicators must also undergo training and pass a written test.

When preparing a formulation for application, which in most cases means diluting it, the applicator should wear protective clothing as directed by the label. Often, this protective garb includes an apron or coveralls, a broad-brimmed hat, long-sleeved shirt, long socks, unlined neoprene or rubber gloves, long pants, and unlined neoprene or rubber boots worn over shoes. For some pesticides, applicators must also wear goggles and/or a respirator.

As an additional precaution, application equipment is calibrated before each use. To calibrate a sprayer, the applicator measures off a distance in the field, then sprays it with a neutral substance such as water. The amount of water used is then checked to see if it is appropriate. All equipment is also checked to see if spraying is even, and worn equipment is replaced promptly.

Byproducts/Waste

When they were introduced, pesticides were seen as a wonderful technology that would increase crop yields and reduce insect-borne diseases. The first sign that this was a hopeful myth was the discovery in the 1950s that pesticide volume must be increased to have the same effect it once had. With the publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962, an awareness of the danger of unrestricted pesticide use grew.

Pesticides kill the pests they are aiming for most of the time, yet often they also kill the pests' natural predators, thereby exacerbating the problem. In some cases, exterminating a pest merely allows another pest to take its place. After a period of pesticide use, the insects become resistant to the pesticide, and stronger or more pesticides must be used to control the population. There is evidence that pesticides are misused, that their effect in some cases is negligible, and that applicators are not aware of the proper use of pesticides. Coupled with these concerns is the worry over blanket spraying of residential areas and contaminated food.

DDT is the most widely noted case of a pesticide that caused damage far from the farm. High levels of DDT have been found in birds of prey, causing them to become endangered because of the effect it has on their eggs. DDT becomes more concentrated the higher it climbs in the food chain, and many people have voiced their concern about its possible presence in humans. In 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a ban on almost all uses of DDT.

Several dozen other pesticides have also been banned, or their use restricted by the EPA. Ironically, these pesticides are still being exported to assist developing countries, where it is estimated that three million acute cases of pesticide poisoning occur per year, along with 20,000 deaths directly related to the misuse of pesticides. Because many of these countries export produce to the United States, the possibility of American contamination is high.

Integrated pest management (IPM) was begun in the 1960s in response to the pesticides dilemma. The idea behind IPM was to use a variety of insect controls instead of relying solely on chemical insecticides. The methods include introducing natural predators, parasites, and bacterial, viral, and fungal insecticides to the fields. Workers may simply vacuum up the insects, or introduce certain plants to ward off pests that attack a particular crop. Farmers may plow at the most effective time, plow their crop residue under, or strip harvest. They may plant pest-resistant plants. Sexual attractant traps may pull pests away from crops. Sterilized males can be released into the field. Insects can be engineered to remain juvenile and never reproduce, molt too rapidly and therefore die rapidly, or become too confused to locate crop foods. Other possibilities are being tested at present. It is possible that in the future pesticide use will diminish as research leads to ways to combat pests with more knowledge and planning and less reliance on chemical intervention.

Where To Learn More

Books

Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1962.

Lee, Sally. Pesticides. Franklin Watts, 1991.

Ware, George W. Pesticides: Theory and Application. W.H. Freeman, 1983.

Periodicals

Gibbons, Ann. "Overkilling the Insect Enemy." Science. August 10, 1990, p. 621.

Holmes, Bob. "The Joy Ride Is Over." U.S. News and World Report. September 14,1992, pp. 73-74.

Reganold, John P., Robert I. Papendick, and James F. Parr. "Sustainable Agriculture." Scientific American. June, 1990, pp. 112-120.

Richmond, Suzan. "Making Sure It's Organic." Changing Times. October, 1990, p. 102.

Satchell, Michael. "A Vicious 'Circle of Poison."' U.S. News and World Report. June 10, 1991, pp. 31-32.

[Article by: Rose Secrest]

McGraw-Hill Science & Technology Encyclopedia:

Pesticide

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A material useful for the mitigation, control, or elimination of plants or animals detrimental to human health or economy. Algicides, defoliants, desiccants, herbicides, plant growth regulators, and fungicides are used to regulate populations of undesirable plants which compete with or parasitize crop or ornamental plants. Attractants, insecticides, miticides, acaricides, molluscicides, nematocides, repellants, and rodenticides are used principally to reduce parasitism and disease transmission in domestic animals, the loss of crop plants, the destruction of processed food, textile, and wood products, and parasitism and disease transmission in humans.

Some pesticides are obtained from plants and minerals. Examples include the insecticides cryolite, a mineral, and nicotine, rotenone, and the pyrethrins which are extracted from plants. A few pesticides are obtained by the mass culture of microorganisms. Two examples are the toxin produced by Bacillus thuringiensis, which is active against moth and butterfly larvae, and the so-called milky disease of the Japanese beetle produced by the spores of B. popilliae. Most pesticides, however, are products which are chemically manufactured. Two outstanding examples are the insecticide DDT and the herbicide 2,4-D.

Concern over the undesirable effects of pesticides on nonpest organisms culminated in laws to prevent exposure of either humans or the environment to unreasonable hazard from pesticides through rigorous registration procedures. The purpose of regulations are to classify pesticides for general or restricted use as a function of acute toxicity, to certify the qualifications of users of restricted pesticides, to identify accurately and label pesticide products, and to ensure proper and safe use of pesticides. Recommendations as to the product and method of choice for control of any pest problem—weed, insect, or varmint—are best obtained from county or state agricultural extension specialists.

Sophisticated methods of pest control are continually being developed. Highly specific synthetic insect hormones are being developed. In an increasing number of pest situations, a natural predator of an insect has been introduced, or conditions are maintained that favor the propagation of the predator. The numbers of the potential pest species are thereby maintained below a critical threshold. An insect control program in which use of insecticides is only one aspect of a strategy based on ecologically sound measures is known as integrated pest management. See also Agricultural chemistry; Chemical ecology; Fungistat and fungicide; Herbicide; Insect control, biological; Insecticide.

Gale Encyclopedia of Public Health:

Pesticides

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Pesticides are a broad class of chemicals and biological agents that are specifically designed and applied to kill a pest. Specific types of pesticides target specific types of pests: insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill fungi and bacteria, herbicides kill weeds and other unwanted plant vegetation, molluscacides kill mollusks, acaricides kill spiders, and so on. Pesticide use dates back to ancient times.

Pesticides are regulated in the United States at both the federal and state level. The primary legislation, one of the oldest environmental laws, is the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA, 1972), which is administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Each state also has an agency responsible for carrying out FIFRA mandates. These agencies may be environmental or agricultural in nature, depending on the state. State laws can be more restrictive than the federal laws.

Pesticides are sometimes called "economic poisons." They are developed to kill something, and they are, therefore, inherently toxic. Pesticides that are less toxic are classified as "general use pesticides." These can be purchased by the average homeowner and applied without any special license or permits. More toxic compounds are called "restricted use pesticides" and their use requires a license. In some cases the restricted use materials have the same active ingredients as the general use materials, but at a higher concentration.

Anything that claims that it has pesticidal activity is, by law, a pesticide, and is subject to registration by the EPA and local state agencies. Household cleaners and bleach are legally pesticides—the pesticide registration number can be found on the product container.

Within the broad classes of products that have similar types of action (e.g., weed killers, insect killers) there are further distinctions regarding the type of chemistry. For example, among insect killers, there are synthetic pyrethroids, organophosphates, and organochlorines. The most well known are the organochlorines, such as chlordane and DDT, which became popular after World War II, and were used in agriculture, and for home and commercial use, for decades. These compounds have low acute toxicity, but are persistent in the environment and have caused a series of long-term environmental health problems. They remain in soil and tissue for a very long time, and they have been shown to have a harmful impact on animal endocrine systems. Most organochlorines were phased out of use in the 1980s. They were replaced by organophosphate materials that are less persistent, but more acutely toxic. In the beginning of the 1990s these compounds, too, were beginning to be phased out through government actions, and voluntarily by the manufacturers.

Pesticides have entered the food system in many parts of the world. Though credited with an enormous increase in food and fiber production, indiscriminate use of these products has led to acute and long-term health problems for humans and animals. There are risks associated with the application of a pesticide into a system, while at the same time there are benefits for using these materials to reduce disease, increased food production, and lessen the risk of starvation.

Pesticides have been applied in many part of the world to control vector-borne diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and others. The most prudent way to balance the benefits with the risks is an integrated approach to pesticide use, combining all control methods—physical, biological, cultural, and chemical.

Bibliography

Hayes, W., and Laws, E. (1991). Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Vol. 1. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Wallace, R., ed. (1998). Maxcy-Rosenau-Last Public Health and Preventive Medicine. Stamford, CT: Appleton and Lange.

— MARK G. ROBSON

Gale Nutrition Encyclopedia:

Pesticides

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Pesticide use is widespread in agriculture throughout the world, raising serious questions about the dangers theses substances pose to human health and the environment. Pesticides are substances intended to prevent, destroy, or repel injurious plants or animals. The term is frequently defined more broadly to include insecticides, herbicides (used to inhibit the growth and reproduction of certain plants), and fungicides (used to inhibit the growth of molds, mildews, and yeasts).

The main argument for pesticides use is an economic one. Pesticides can protect crops against sudden pest outbreaks and allow increased production, and they can ensure the production of more attractive fruits and vegetables. By delaying the rotting of produce, pesticides permit longer shipping times and extend the shelf life of fresh produce.

The dangers of pesticide use can be difficult to pinpoint, since exposure may be small but cumulative. Prolonged pesticide exposure in humans may negatively affect the nervous, reproductive, and immune systems and also raises the possibility of increased risk of some cancers. Their use also leads to the development of pesticide-resistant bugs, creating a need for newer and more powerful pesticides.

See also Food safety; Organic foods; Regulatory agencies.

Bibliography
Wardlaw, Gordon; Hampl, Jeffrey; and DiSilvestro, Robert (2004). Perspectives in Nutrition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Internet Resources
United States Environmental Protection Agency. "Pesticides." Available from http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/

Columbia Encyclopedia:

pesticide

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pesticide, biological, physical, or chemical agent used to kill plants or animals that are harmful to people; in practice, the term pesticide is often applied only to chemical agents. Various pesticides are known as insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, herbicides, and rodenticides, i.e., agents primarily effective against insects, nematodes (or roundworms), fungi, weeds, and rodents, respectively.

Pesticides can be derived from plants (e.g., pyrethrin, neem) or minerals, or they can be chemically manufactured (e.g., DDT, 2,4-D). Natural predators and other biological methods are also used. Among the biological agents, parasites and predators feed on pests, pathogens sicken them, and pheromones interfere with insect mating. There are also genetically engineered pesticides, such as the toxin-producing Bacillus thuringiensis strain used against moth larvae.

Chemical pesticides are usually contact, stomach, or fumigant poisons. Contact poisons may have immediate or delayed effects after physical contact with a pest. Fumigants, which may initially have the form of a solid, liquid, or gas, kill pests while in a gaseous state.

Some insecticides and fungicides are systemic, i.e., they are translocated by a plant from the area of application to other plant parts, where they affect only pests that feed on the crop. Nonselective pesticides can affect both the targeted pest and other organisms; selective pesticides affect only the target pest. Persistent pesticides are those that remain in the environment for a long time.

Since the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s, there has been concern regarding the effects of chemical pesticides on humans and on the environment. In the environment, the biological concentration of chemical pesticides (the amount retained in an organism through direct contact or consumption of affected plants or animals) tends to increase the higher the animal is in the food chain. DDT, for example, severely reduced the rate of reproduction in many fish and birds.

Chemical pesticides now undergo exhaustive and expensive trials prior to government registration and release. The carcinogenicity of some pesticide components, however, is a vigorously debated topic. Government testing often uses massive amounts of such substances on laboratory animals, creating what some critics feel is an exaggerated assessment of their danger. Humans are heavily exposed to pesticides usually as a result of acute exposure, such as accidental inhalation, on the job.

Potential dangers from pesticide use must be weighed against improved crop quality and yield and greatly improved human health around the world, as well as the availability of disease-preventing fresh fruits and vegetables that the use of pesticides has made possible. Nevertheless, many consumers are concerned about the effects of pesticide residues in foods, especially for infants, whose systems may not be able to convert toxic chemicals into harmless substances as readily as adult systems can. In addition, concerns have been raised for farm workers in developing countries that lack the protective safeguards required in the United States; their health is threatened by the continued use of pesticides that are known health hazards. Efforts are being made to reduce chemical pesticide use in favor of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), biological controls, and plant breeding for inherent pest resistance.

Bibliography

See R. Carson, Silent Spring (1962); P. Hurst et al., The Pesticides Handbook (1991); G. J. Marco et al., ed., Regulation of Agrochemicals (1991).

Gale Encyclopedia of Food & Culture:

Pesticides

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A pesticide is any agent used to kill or control a pest. Pests include insects, weeds, and diseases, such as fungi. In addition, mice, rats, birds, and algae may become pests at some time. When pests damage plants or property, people often use pesticides to control them. The term "pesticide" can apply to insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, antimicrobials, growth regulators, defoliants, and desiccants, most of which are applied to food or food plants before or after harvest. Common pesticides are encountered every day—in pet flea collars, kitchen disinfectants, cockroach baits, swimming pool chemicals, and mosquito repellents. Pesticide products contain both active and inert ingredients, and both must be specified on the label.

Pesticide Controversy

Modern farmers use pesticides to help them to grow almost all of the world's food. In general, pesticides have been a quick, effective, and inexpensive method of control for pests that attack most of the world's food crops. Pesticides are credited with helping to save millions of lives by controlling diseases, such as malaria and yellow fever, which are spread by insects. However, most pesticides present some risk of harm to humans, animals, or the environment because they are designed to kill living organisms.

Sulfur, herbal extracts, tobacco, soaps, oil, arsenic, pyrethrum, and lime have been used as pesticides for many centuries, but the widespread use of synthetic pesticides is a relatively recent phenomenon. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, or DDT, is probably the best known early pesticide. DDT was created in 1873, but it was not until the late 1930s that Swiss researcher Paul Müller discovered that the compound was effective in killing insects. Müller won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1948 for his work. DDT was an inexpensive and effective solution to many insect problems, and it virtually eliminated malaria from parts of the world. After World War II, DDT became a common agricultural pesticide. In the 1950s, the United States was producing 220 million pounds of DDT per year.

Insect resistance to the substance developed quickly. DDT residues were found in human milk and fatty tissues, and in wildlife food chains. In 1962 writer and ecologist Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring to warn the public about the long-term effects of misusing pesticides. Carson challenged the practices of agricultural scientists and the government, and called for a change in the way humankind viewed the natural world. Carson testified before Congress in 1963, calling for new policies to protect human health and the environment. While no longer used in the United States, DDT use continues in other parts of the world. Many tropical countries still use DDT to control malaria.

All pesticides (natural and synthetic) have the potential to cause harm during their manufacture or refinement, at the time of application to crops, as residues that persist on food, and in the disruption of the natural balance that exists between pests and their natural enemies. For example, traces of the natural insecticide "rotenone" may be found on vegetables after cooking. Atrazine, a weed-killer commonly used on corn and soybeans, suburban lawns, and utility rights-of-way, has contaminated groundwater where those crops are grown. Insecticides like DDE and dieldrin, which are related to DDT, were banned in the United States in the 1970s, but still show up in the U.S. food supply. Persistent residues of these chemicals travel long distances in global air and water currents. These insecticides are still produced and used in many countries. Recent studies have linked pesticides with acute poisonings, cancer, brain damage, reproductive harm, and many childhood illnesses and learning problems, leading concerned citizens to feel that pesticides should be banned.

Organic Agriculture

Some agricultural experts predict that the quality and quantity of our food supply would be lessened if pesticides were eliminated. However, practitioners of organic agriculture (organic farmers use no synthetic agricultural chemicals and instead rely on management practices such as crop rotation, disease-resistant varieties, and natural enemies to control crop pests) claim that food quality and yield are equally productive under organic management. Fortunately for conventional and organic farmers, the number of safer, reduced-risk options for pest control is increasing. For example, there were approximately seven hundred new, biological pesticide products registered by 1999. Biological pesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and minerals.

Garlic, mint, and baking soda all have pesticide-like properties and are considered biological pesticides. Biological pesticides include the common cabbage worm killer Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces a protein that helps to kill specific worm pests. Some of the new reduced-risk pesticides, while synthesized in a laboratory, are considered safer because they do not kill beneficial insects (such as lady beetles and lacewings), or they break down quickly to inactive products. In 1977 U.S. president Jimmy Carter issued a Presidential Decree that mandated the use of integrated pest management (IPM)—a comprehensive approach to pest control that uses a combination of less toxic means to reduce the status of pests to tolerant levels, while maintaining a quality environment. Together, the new reduced-risk pesticides and IPM practices have helped to lessen the amount of pesticides that are used on food and other crops. Levels of pesticide residues on IPM produce have been reported as higher than those of organically grown food, but lower than those in conventionally grown produce.

Pesticides and Their Regulation

In the United States, pesticides are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA regulates the sale, distribution, and use of pesticides and has the authority to suspend or cancel the registration of a pesticide if information shows that continued use would pose unreasonable risks. In 1996 the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) was signed into law, giving EPA more effective power. Among its many benefits, the FQPA established a new health-based safety standard for pesticide residues in food; included special provisions for infants and children; required periodic tolerance reevaluations; incorporated provisions for endocrine testing; and allowed for enhanced enforcement of pesticide residue standards.

Scientists predict that, in the future, pesticides will continue to play a role in pest management of food crops, partly because reduced-risk pesticides have become less harmful to the environment, and less toxic to people and wildlife. Societal concerns, scientific advances, and regulatory pressures continue to drive some of the more hazardous pesticides from the marketplace. In addition, consumer interest in safe and healthy food will create more demand for organically grown products.

Bibliography

Cruising chemistry. An introduction to the chemistry of the world around you. "DDT: An Introduction." University of California, San Diego. Available at http://www.chem.duke.edu/jds/cruise_chem/pest/pest1.html.

Entomology at Rutgers. Agricultural Entomology and Pest Management course. Entomology 370–350—Spring 2001, Dr. George Hamilton. Available at http://aesop.rutgers.edu/hamilton/agent.htm.

"The Future Role of Pesticides in U.S. Agriculture." 2000. Committee on the Future Role of Pesticides in U.S. Agriculture, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources and Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Life. Available at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309065267/html/17.html.

Lear, Linda. The Rachel Carson Website. Available at http://www.rachelcarson.org/.

Natural Resources Defense Council. Available at http://www.nrdc.org/health/pesticides/default.asp.

Paul Hermann Müller—Biography. Nobel e-Museum. The Nobel Foundation. The Official Web Site of The Nobel Foundation. Available at http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1948/muller-bio.html.

Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database. Available at http://docs.pesticideinfo.org/documentation3/ref_general3.html.

Pesticide Action Network Toxicity Ratings. Available at http://docs.pesticideinfo.org/documentation3/ref_toxicity2.html.

Pesticide Data Program. USDA Agricultural Marketing Service Science and Technology Programs. Progress Report 2001. Available at http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/progress.htm#skipusers).

U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs. Biopesticides. Available at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/citizens/biopesticides.htm.

U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs. Highlights of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. Available at http://www.epa.gov/opppsps1/fqpa/fqpahigh.htm.

U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs. What the Pesticide Residue Limits Are on Food. Available at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/viewtols.htm.

—Patricia S. Michalak

Taylor's Dictionary for Gardeners:

pesticide

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A general term for any compound used to kill insects, mites, weeds, fungi, bacteria, or other pests.

Wiley Dictionary of Flavors:

Pesticide

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A substance that kills pests.

Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry:

pesticide

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any substance, natural or artificial, used to kill pests.

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Saunders Veterinary Dictionary:

pesticide

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A poison used to destroy pests of any sort. See arsenical, carbamates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus compound, pyrethroids.

p. poisoning — pesticides are selective poisons chosen for use because of their relative safety for humans and animals. It is likely that they will poison these species if they are used in sufficient quantity or in special circumstances, for example when the water intake of the subject animals is limited.
p. resistance — continued use of a single agent, or a group of closely allied agents, can cause selective survival of insects with innate tolerance of the agent and lead to the development of a resistant population.
p. tissue residues — some pesticides have had to be withdrawn from use because of their persistence in the tissues of animals including humans. The passage of the agent in the milk of the animal is a comparable problem.

Random House Word Menu:

categories related to 'pesticide'

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Random House Word Menu by Stephen Glazier

For a list of words related to pesticide, see:

Farming and Crops - pesticide: any of various pest killers, including fungicides (kill fungi), insecticides (kill insects), miticides (kill mites), molluskicides (kill snails and slugs), and ovicides (kill eggs), esp. chlorinated hydrocarbons (organochlorines), organic phosphates (organophosphates), and carbamate compounds

Rhymes:

pesticidal

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See words rhyming with "pesticidal."

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Pesticide

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A cropduster spraying pesticide on a field

Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.^[1] A pesticide may be a chemical, biological agent (such as a virus or bacterium), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that destroy property, spread disease or are vectors for disease or cause nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, some also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals. According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 9 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent organic chemicals are pesticides. Pesticides are categorized into four main substituent chemicals: herbicides; fungicides; insecticides and bactericides.^[2]^[3]

Definition

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined the term of pesticide as:

any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances which may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport.^[4]

Type of Pesticide	Target Pest Group
Algicides or Algaecides	Algae
Avicides	Birds
Bactericides	Bacteria
Fungicides	Fungi and Oomycetes
Insecticides	Insects
Miticides or Acaricides	Mites
Molluscicides	Snails
Nematicides	Nematodes
Rodenticides	Rodents
Virucides	Viruses

Subclasses of pesticides include: herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, pediculicides, and biocides.^[3]^[5]

Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure, and physical state.^[6] Pesticides can also be classed as inorganic, synthetic, or biologicals (biopesticides),^[6] although the distinction can sometimes blur. Biopesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides.^[7] Plant-derived pesticides, or "botanicals", have been developing quickly. These include the pyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside.^[8]^:15

Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families. Prominent insecticide families include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons (e.g. DDT) could be separated into dichlorodiphenylethanes, cyclodiene compounds, and other related compounds. They operate by disrupting the sodium/potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit continuously. Their toxicities vary greatly, but they have been phased out because of their persistence and potential to bioaccumulate.^[8]^:239-240 Organophosphate and carbamates largely replaced organochlorines. Both operate through inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to transfer nerve impulses indefinitely and causing a variety of symptoms such as weakness or paralysis. Organophosphates are quite toxic to vertebrates, and have in some cases been replaced by less toxic carbamates.^[8]^:136-137 Thiocarbamate and dithiocarbamates are subclasses of carbamates. Prominent families of herbicides include pheoxy and benzoic acid herbicides (e.g. 2,4-D), triazines (e.g. atrazine), ureas (e.g. diuron), and Chloroacetanilides (e.g. alachlor). Phenoxy compounds tend to selectively kill broadleaved weeds rather than grasses. The phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides function similar to plant growth hormones, and grow cells without normal cell division, crushing the plants nutrient transport system.^[8]^:300 Triazines interfere with photsynthesis.^[8]^:335 Many commonly used pesticides are not included in these families, including glyphosate.

Pesticides can be classified based upon their biological mechanism function or application method. Most pesticides work by poisoning pests.^[9] A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides, which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers, may kill bees and other needed pollinators.

In 2009, the development of a new class of fungicides called paldoxins was announced. These work by taking advantage of natural defense chemicals released by plants called phytoalexins, which fungi then detoxify using enzymes. The paldoxins inhibit the fungi's detoxification enzymes. They are believed to be safer and greener.^[10]

Uses

Pesticides are used to control organisms that are considered to be harmful.^[11] For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas.^[11] Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.^[12] Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses.^[11] Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory agencies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) of Canada.

Pesticides can save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests; in the U.S., farmers get an estimated fourfold return on money they spend on pesticides.^[13] One study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%.^[14] Another study, conducted in 1999, found that a ban on pesticides in the United States may result in a rise of food prices, loss of jobs, and an increase in world hunger.^[15]

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has been used to fight malaria since the 1950s. Recent policy statements by the World Health Organization have given stronger support to this approach.^[16] Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT."^[16] However, since then, an October 2007 study has linked breast cancer from exposure to DDT prior to puberty.^[17] Poisoning may also occur due to use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons by entering the human food chain when animal tissues are affected. Symptoms include nervous excitement, tremors, convulsions or death. Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and typhus.^[18] However, DDT use is not always effective, as resistance to DDT was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT.^[19] A study for the World Health Organization in 2000 from Vietnam established that non-DDT malaria controls were significantly more effective than DDT use.^[20] The ecological effect of DDT on organisms is an example of bioaccumulation.

Amounts

In 2006 and 2008,the world used approximately 5.2 billion pounds of pesticides with herbicides constituting the majority of the world pesticide use at 40% followed by insecticides and fungicides with totals of 17% and 10% respectively.^[21] The U.S. in 2006 and 2007, used approximately 1.1 billion pounds of pesticides accounting for 22% of the world total.^[21] For conventional pesticides which are used in the agricultural sector as well in industry, commercial, governmental and the home & garden sectors, the U.S. used at total of 857 million pounds, with the agricultural sector accounting for 80% of the conventional pesticide use total.^[21] Pesticides are also found in majority of U.S. households with 78 million out of the 105.5 million households indicating that they use some form of pesticide.^[21] Currently,there are more than 1,055 active ingredients registered as pesticides,^[22] which are put together to produce over 16,000 pesticide products that are being marketed in the United States ^[23]

Costs

On the cost side of pesticide use there can be a cost to the environment and human health, as well as the cost of the development and research of new pesticides.

Health effects

A sign warning about potential pesticide exposure.

Main articles: Health effects of pesticides and Pesticide poisoning

Pesticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in those who are exposed.^[24] Pesticide exposure can cause a variety of adverse health effects. These effects can range from simple irritation of the skin and eyes to more severe effects such as affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer.^[25] A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased.^[26] Strong evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, fetal death,^[27] and neurodevelopmental disorder.^[28]

The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to pesticides and using safer alternatives:^[6] "Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects of low-dose pesticide exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate to characterize potential exposure problems related either to pesticide usage or pesticide-related illnesses…Considering these data gaps, it is prudent…to limit pesticide exposures…and to use the least toxic chemical pesticide or non-chemical alternative."

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides, about 18,000 of whom die.^[18] According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.^[29]

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans.^[30]

Environmental effect

Main article: Environmental effects of pesticides

Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil.^[18] Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.

In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation,^[31] contributes to pollinator decline,^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35] destroys habitat (especially for birds),^[36] and threatens endangered species.^[18]
Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.

Economics

Harm	Annual US Cost
Public Health	$1.1 billion
Pesticide Resistance in Pest	$1.5 billion
Crop Losses Caused by Pesticides	$1.4 billion
Bird Losses due to Pesticides	$2.2 billion
Groundwater Contamination	$2.0 billion
Other Costs	$1.4 billion
Total Costs	$9.6 billion

Human health and environmental cost from pesticides in the United States is a total of $9.6 billion:^[37]

Additional cost includes the registration process and the cost of purchase pesticides. The registration process can take several years to complete the 70 different types of field test and can cost between $50–70 million for a single pesticide.^[37] Annually the United States spends $10 billion on pesticides.^[37]

Benefits

There are two levels of benefits for pesticide use, primary and secondary. Primary benefits are direct gains from the use of pesticides and secondary benefits are effects that are more long-term.^[38]

Primary benefits

1. Controlling pests and plant disease vectors

Improved crop/livestock yields
Improved crop/livestock quality
Invasive species controlled

2. Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms

Human lives saved and suffering reduced
Animal lives saved and suffering reduced
Diseases contained geographically

3. Prevent of control organisms that harm other human activities and structures

Drivers view unobstructed
Tree/brush/leaf hazards prevented
Wooden structures protected ^[38]

Secondary benefits

1. Community benefits

Farm and agribusiness revenues
Nutrition and health improved
Food safety and security

2. National benefits

Workforce productivity increased
Increased export revenues
National agriculture economy

3. Global benefits

Assured safe and diverse food supply
Less greenhouse gas
Reduced civil unrest ^[38]

Monetary

For every dollar ($1) that is spent on pesticides for crops yields four dollars ($4) in crops saved.^[39] This means based on the amount of money spent per year on pesticides, $10 billion, that there is an additional $40 billion savings in crop that would be lost due to damage by insects and weeds. Generally speaking, farmers benefit from having an increase crop yield and from being able to grow a variety of crops throughout the year. Consumers of agricultural products also benefit from being able to afford the vast quantities of produce available year round.^[38] The general public also benefits from the use of pesticides for the control of insect-borne diseases and illnesses, such as malaria.^[38] The use of pesticides creates a large job market, which provides jobs for all of the people who work within the industry.

Alternatives

Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of biological pest controls (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides), genetic engineering, and methods of interfering with insect breeding.^[18] Application of composted yard waste has also been used as a way of controlling pests.^[40] These methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical pesticides. In addition, EPA is registering reduced-risk conventional pesticides in increasing numbers.

Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop.^[18] In the U.S., farmers have had success controlling insects by spraying with hot water at a cost that is about the same as pesticide spraying.^[18]

Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to pesticide use. These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the pests.^[18] Biological pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used.^[18]

Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the target species and releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce offspring.^[18] This technique was first used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,^[41] and the gypsy moth.^[42] However, this can be a costly, time consuming approach that only works on some types of insects.^[18]

Another alternative to pesticides is the thermal treatment of soil through steam. Soil steaming kills pest and increases soil health.^{[citation needed]}

In India, traditional pest control methods include using Panchakavya, the "mixture of five products." The method has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in part to use by the organic farming community.^{[citation needed]}

Push pull strategy

The term "push-pull" was established in 1987 as an approach for integrated pest management (IPM). This strategy uses a mixture of behavior-modifying stimuli to manipulate the distribution and abundance of insects. "Push" means the insects are repelled or deterred away from whatever resource that is being protected. "Pull" means that certain stimuli (semiochemical stimuli, pheromones, food additives, visual stimuli, genetically altered plants, etc.) are used to attract pests to trap crops where they will be killed ^[43] There are numerous different components involved in order to implement a Push-Pull Strategy in IPM.

Many case studies testing the effectiveness of the push-pull approach have been done across the world. The most successful push-pull strategy was developed in Africa for subsistence farming. Another successful case study was performed on the control of Helicoverpa in cotton crops in Australia. In Europe, the Middle East, and the United States, push-pull strategies were successfully used in the controlling of Sitona lineatus in bean fields.^[43] Plus many more cases where this strategy was more beneficial than simply using pesticides on their crops.

Some advantages of using the push-pull method are less use of chemical or biological materials and better protection against insect habituation to this control method. Some disadvantages of the push-pull strategy is that if there is a lack of appropriate knowledge of behavioral and chemical ecology of the host-pest interactions then this method becomes unreliable. Furthermore, because the push-pull method is not a very popular method of IPM operational and registration costs are higher.^[44]

(See: Push–pull technology.)

Effectiveness

Some evidence shows that alternatives to pesticides can be equally effective as the use of chemicals. For example, Sweden has halved its use of pesticides with hardly any reduction in crops.^[18] In Indonesia, farmers have reduced pesticide use on rice fields by 65% and experienced a 15% crop increase.^[18] A study of Maize yields in northern Florida found that the application of composted yard waste with high carbon to nitrogen ratio to agricultural fields was highly effective at reducing the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and increasing crop yield, with yield increases ranging from 10% to 212%; the observed effects were long-term, often not appearing until the third season of the study.^[40]

However, pesticide resistance is increasing. In the 1940s, U.S. farmers lost only 7% of their crops to pests. Since the 1980s, loss has increased to 13%, even though more pesticides are being used. Between 500 and 1,000 insect and weed species have developed pesticide resistance since 1945.^[45]

Regulation

International

In Europe, recent EU legislation has been approved banning the use of highly toxic pesticides including those that are carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction, those that are endocrine-disrupting, and those that are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) or very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB).^{[citation needed]} Measures were approved to improve the general safety of pesticides across all EU member states.^[46]

Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for different countries.^[47] The Code was updated in 1998 and 2002.^[48] The FAO claims that the code has raised awareness about pesticide hazards and decreased the number of countries without restrictions on pesticide use.^[4]

Three other efforts to improve regulation of international pesticide trade are the United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade and the United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission^{[citation needed]}. The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among participating countries.^[49] Both initiatives operate on a voluntary basis.^[49]

Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use.^[12] Integrated pest management, the use of multiple approaches to control pests, is becoming widespread and has been used with success in countries such as Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, the U.S., Australia, and Mexico.^[18] IPM attempts to recognize the more widespread impacts of an action on an ecosystem, so that natural balances are not upset.^[50] New pesticides are being developed, including biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives that are thought to reduce health and environmental risks. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides.

Pesticides can be created that are targeted to a specific pest's life cycle, which can be environmentally more friendly.^[51] For example, potato cyst nematodes emerge from their protective cysts in response to a chemical excreted by potatoes; they feed on the potatoes and damage the crop.^[51] A similar chemical can be applied to fields early, before the potatoes are planted, causing the nematodes to emerge early and starve in the absence of potatoes.^[51]

United States

Main article: Pesticide regulation in the United States

Preparation for an application of hazardous pesticide in USA.

In most countries, pesticides must be approved for sale and use by a government agency.^[47] In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for regulating pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA).^[52] Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is safe to use and effective against the intended pest.^{[citation needed]} The EPA regulates pesticides to ensure that these products do not pose adverse effects to humans or the environment. Pesticides produced before November 1984 continue to be reassessed in order to meet the current scientific and regulatory standards. All registered pesticides are reviewed every 15 years to ensure they meet the proper standards.^[52] During the registration process, a label is created. The label contains directions for proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class.

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides.^[47] Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.^{[citation needed]}

The EPA regulates pesticides under two under main acts, both of which were amended by the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. In addition to the EPA, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set standards for the level of pesticide residue that is allowed on or in crops ^[53] The EPA looks at what the potential human health and environmental effects might be associated with the use of the pesticide.^[54]

Additionally, the U.S. EPA uses the National Research Council's four-step process for human health risk assessment: (1) Hazard Identification, (2) Dose-Response Assessment, (3) Exposure Assessment, and (4) Risk Characterization.^[55]

History

Since before 2000 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in ancient Sumer about 4,500 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, mentions the use of poisonous plants for pest control.^[56] By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as arsenic, mercury and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum, which is derived from chrysanthemums, and rotenone, which is derived from the roots of tropical vegetables.^[57] Until the 1950s, arsenic-based pesticides were dominant.^[58] Paul Müller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. Organochlorines such as DDT were dominant, but they were replaced in the U.S. by organophosphates and carbamates by 1975. Since then, pyrethrin compounds have become the dominant insecticide.^[58] Herbicides became common in the 1960s, led by "triazine and other nitrogen-based compounds, carboxylic acids such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, and glyphosate".^[58]

The first legislation providing federal authority for regulating pesticides was enacted in 1910;^[59] however, decades later during the 1940s manufacturers began to produce large amounts of synthetic pesticides and their use became widespread.^[50] Some sources consider the 1940s and 1950s to have been the start of the "pesticide era."^[60] Although the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was established in 1970 and amendments to the pesticide law in 1972,^[61] pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950 and 2.3 million tonnes (2.5 million short tons) of industrial pesticides are now used each year.^[57] Seventy-five percent of all pesticides in the world are used in developed countries, but use in developing countries is increasing.^[18] In 2001 the EPA stopped reporting yearly pesticide use statistics. A study of USA pesticide use trends through 1997 was published in 2003 by the National Science Foundation's Center for Integrated Pest Management.^[58]^[62]

In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing, which was a serious threat to biodiversity. Rachel Carson wrote the best-selling book Silent Spring about biological magnification. The agricultural use of DDT is now banned under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent malaria and other tropical diseases by spraying on interior walls to kill or repel mosquitoes.^[63]

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^ ^a ^b http://www.annualreviews.org.silk.library.umass.edu:2048/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed
^ "Arsenic in Drinking Water: 3. Occurrence in U.S. Waters". http://h2oc.com/pdfs/Occurrence.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
^ http://www.panna.org/issues/pesticides-101-primer#2
^ Pesticide Legislation Approved last retrieved 13 January 2009
^ ^a ^b ^c Willson, Harold R (February 23, 1996), Pesticide Regulations. University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Programmes: International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides. Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
^ ^a ^b Reynolds, JD (1997), International pesticide trade: Is there any hope for the effective regulation of controlled substances? Florida State University Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law, Volume 131. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
^ ^a ^b Daly H, Doyen JT, and Purcell AH III (1998), Introduction to insect biology and diversity, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. New York, New York. Chapter 14, Pages 279-300.
^ ^a ^b ^c Science Daily, (October 11, 2001), Environmentally-friendly pesticide to combat potato cyst nematodes. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
^ ^a ^b http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/public.htm#regulation
^ Stephen J. Toth, Jr., Pesticide Impact Assessment Specialist, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, "Federal Pesticide Laws and Regulations." March, 1996. [4] Retrieved on February 25, 2011.
^ US Environmental Protection Agency (February 16, 2011), Pesticide Registration Program epa.gov. Retrieved on February 25, 2011.
^ "Assessing Health Risks from Pesticides". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/riskassess.htm
^ Rao GVR, Rupela OP, Rao VR and Reddy YVR (2007) "Role of biopesticides in crop protection: present status and future prospects" Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 35 (1): 1–9.
^ ^a ^b Miller, GT (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-37697-5
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pesticides

National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC) Information about pesticide-related topics.
Pesticide laws guidance on NetRegs.gov.uk
Pesticide Modes of action (International Pesticide Application Research Centre)
Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides.
Compendium of Pesticide Common Names: Classified Lists of Pesticides Lists of pesticide names by type.
Pesticide Action Network. PAN Pesticides Database. Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form.
Pesticide Information [5] Supplies resources and a dialogue for improved understanding of argumaets for and against pesticides.
Pesticide pathfinder Information about pesticide use in the workplace and links to U.S regulatory information.
USDA Pesticide Data Program, tracking residue levels in food

Pesticide regulatory authorities

[6] College voor toelating bestrijdingsmiddelen en biociden. Regulatory authority in the Netherlands - information available in English
UK Pesticides Safety Directorate
European Commission pesticide information
Lake Ontario Waterkeeper (May 21, 2008) -- Pesticide legislation suggests industry lobby is still alive and well
United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pesticides Program

Human health

NIH encyclopedia pages with emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure
Durango Software - Provides risk assessment tools for pesticide use
Environmental Working Group (July 14, 2005), The Pollution in Newborns.
Hazard Communications for Agricultural Workers (October 2007)
National Agricultural Workers Survey
Pesticides and Health -- Greenpeace China
David Suzuki Foundation: Protecting Your Health from Pesticides
Estimation of human intake of pesticides from all potential pathways by L Tran, R Glass, P Ritchie, A Sleeuwenhoek, L MacCalman, J Cherrie. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/08/01

v d e Pesticides

Pesticides	Bioherbicide Biopesticide Environmental impact of pesticides Fumigation Fungicide Gene silencing pesticide Green pesticide Health effects of pesticides Herbicide Insecticide Molluscicide Pesticide application Pesticide drift Pesticide formulation Pesticide misuse Paradox of the pesticides Pesticide poisoning Pesticide residue Pesticide resistance Pesticide toxicity to bees Restricted use pesticide Rodenticide

Related topics	Agricultural spray adjuvant Biological pest control Green Pest Management Integrated pest management Maximum Residue Limit Non-pesticide management Persistent organic pollutant Pest control Pesticide Action Network Toxicity Class The Pesticide Question

By country	Canada European Union New Zealand United States Regulation in the United States

Index of pesticide articles Pesticide categories

v d e Pest control: herbicides

Anilides/Anilines	acetochlor alachlor asulam benfluralin butachlor diethatyl diflufenican dimethenamid flamprop metazachlor metolachlor pendimethalin pretilachlor propachlor propanil trifluralin

Aromatic acids	aminopyralid chloramben clopyralid dicamba picloram pyrithiobac quinclorac quinmerac

Arsenicals	cacodylic acid copper arsenate DSMA MSMA

Organophosphorus	bensulide bilanafos ethephon fosamine glufosinate glyphosate piperophos

Phenoxy	2,4-D 2,4-DB dichlorprop fenoprop MCPA MCPB 2,4,5-T

Pyridines	dithiopyr fluroxypyr imazapyr thiazopyr triclopyr

Quaternary	diquat MPP paraquat

Triazines	ametryn atrazine cyanazine hexazinone prometon prometryn propazine simazine simetryn terbuthylazine terbutryn

Ureas	chlortoluron DCMU metsulfuron-methyl monolinuron tebuthiuron

Others	3-AT bromoxynil clomazone DCBN dinoseb juglone mesotrione methazole metham sodium sulfentrazone

v d e Pest control: insecticides

Carbamates	Aldicarb · Bendiocarb · Carbaryl · Carbofuran · Ethienocarb · Fenobucarb · Oxamyl · Propoxur

Inorganic compounds	Aluminium phosphide · Boric acid · Chromated copper arsenate · Copper(II) arsenate · Copper(I) cyanide · Diatomaceous earth · Lead hydrogen arsenate · Paris Green · Scheele's Green

Organochlorides	Aldrin · Beta-HCH · Carbon tetrachloride · Chlordane · Cyclodiene · 1,2-DCB · 1,4-DCB · 1,1-DCE · 1,2-DCE · DDD · DDE · DDT · Dicofol · Dieldrin · Endosulfan · Endrin · Heptachlor · Kepone · Lindane · Methoxychlor · Mirex · Tetradifon · Toxaphene

Organophosphorus	Acephate · Azinphos-methyl · Bensulide · Chlorethoxyfos · Chlorfenvinphos · Chlorpyrifos · Chlorpyrifos-methyl · Coumaphos · Demeton-S-methyl · Diazinon · Dicrotophos · Diisopropyl fluorophosphate · Dimethoate · Dioxathion · Disulfoton · Ethion · Ethoprop · Fenamiphos · Fenitrothion · Fenthion · Fosthiazate · Isoxathion · Malathion · Methamidophos · Methidathion · Mevinphos · Monocrotophos · Naled · Omethoate · Oxydemeton-methyl · Parathion · Parathion-methyl · Phorate · Phosalone · Phosmet · Phostebupirim · Phoxim · Pirimiphos-methyl · Quinalphos · Temefos · Terbufos · Tetrachlorvinphos · Tribufos · Trichlorfon

Pyrethroids	Allethrins · Bifenthrin · Bioallethrin · Cyfluthrin · Cyhalothrin · Cypermethrin · Cyphenothrin · Deltamethrin · Empenthrin · Etofenprox · Fenvalerate · Imiprothrin · Metofluthrin · Permethrin · Phenothrin · Prallethrin · Pyrethrin (I, II; chrysanthemic acid) · Pyrethrum · Resmethrin · Silafluofen · Tefluthrin · Tetramethrin · Tralomethrin · Transfluthrin

Neonicotinoids	Acetamiprid · Clothianidin · Dinotefuran · Imidacloprid · Nitenpyram · Nithiazine · Thiacloprid · Thiamethoxam

Other chemicals	Amitraz · Azadirachtin · Chlordimeform · Chlorfenapyr · Cyromazine · Diflubenzuron · Fenazaquin · Fenoxycarb · Fipronil · Flufenoxuron · Hydramethylnon · Indoxacarb · Limonene · Lufenuron · Methoprene · Pyridaben · Pyriprole · Pyriproxyfen · Ryanodine · Sesamex · Spinosad · Sulfluramid · Tebufenpyrad · Veracevine · Xanthone

Metabolites	Oxon · Malaoxon · Paraoxon · TCPy

Biopesticides	Bacillus thuringiensis · Baculovirus · Beauveria bassiana · Beauveria brongniartii · Metarhizium acridum · Metarhizium anisopliae · Lecanicillium lecanii · Paecilomyces fumosoroseus · Paenibacillus popilliae

v d e Pest control: rodenticides

Anticoagulants/ vitamin K antagonists	coumarins/4-Hydroxycoumarins: 1st generation (Warfarin, Coumatetralyl) • 2nd generation (Brodifacoum, Difenacoum, Flocoumafen) 1,3-Indandiones: Chlorophacinone • Pindone • Diphacinone other: Difethialone

Convulsants	Crimidine • Phenylsilatrane • Strychnine • Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine

Calciferols	Cholecalciferol • Ergocalciferol

Inorganic compounds	Aluminium phosphide • Arsenic • Barium carbonate • Calcium phosphide • Cyanide • Thallium • Zinc phosphide

Organochlorine	Chloralose • Endrin

Organophosphorus	Phosacetim

Metabolic poisons	Bromethalin • Fluoroacetamide • 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (Gliftor) • Sodium fluoroacetate

Other	α-Naphthylthiourea • Norbormide • Pyrinuron • Scilliroside

v d e Horticulture and gardening

Gardening and Gardens	Arboretum Butterfly gardening Forest gardening French intensive gardening Garden Garden design History of gardening Kitchen garden Native gardening Parterre Raised bed gardening Roof garden Square foot gardening Sustainable gardening Therapeutic garden Tropical garden Wildlife garden Xeriscaping

Horticulture	Agriculture Aquaponics Arboriculture Botany Companion planting Crop Floriculture Fruticulture Horticultural flora Indigenous horticulture Intercropping Landscape architecture Oenology Olericulture Plant Plant breeding Plant propagation Postharvest physiology Stock-free agriculture Sustainable agriculture Tropical horticulture Urban agriculture Viticulture

Organic	Biodynamic agriculture List of organic gardening and farming topics Vegan organic gardening

Plant protection	Fungicide Herbicide Index of pesticide articles List of fungicides Pesticide Plant disease forecasting Weed control

Agriculture and Agronomy portal Gardening portal Commons

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Translations:

Pesticide

Top

Dansk (Danish)
n. - pesticid

Nederlands (Dutch)
verdelgingsmiddel

Français (French)
n. - pesticide

Deutsch (German)
n. - Pestizid

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (χημ.) ζιζανιοκτόνο, εντομοκτόνο

Italiano (Italian)
pesticida

Português (Portuguese)
n. - pesticida (m), agrotóxico (m), pesticídio (m)

Русский (Russian)
пестицид

Español (Spanish)
n. - pesticida, plaguicida

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - pesticid, bekämpningsmedel (mot skadeinsekter etc)

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
杀虫剂

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 殺蟲劑

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 살충제

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 殺虫剤

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) مبيد للحشرات‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮מדביר מזיקים‬

If you are unable to view some languages clearly, click here.

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