physical anthropology

n.
The branch of anthropology that deals with human evolutionary biology, physical variation, and classification. Also called somatology.

physical anthropologist physical anthropologist n.

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The subfield of anthropology that deals with human and nonhuman primate evolution, the biological bases of human behavior, and human biological variability and its significance. Some refer to the field as biological anthropology in order to signal the close links with other biological sciences. The term physical anthropology is largely an American and British invention; in most European and many other countries physical anthropologists are the only anthropologists, while persons who study behavioral aspects of the human condition are known as archeologists, ethnologists, linguists, or prehistorians.

Paleoanthropology

Paleoanthropology is the multidisciplinary study of human evolution as evidenced by fossils, artifacts, and their geological and burial site contexts. Physical anthropologists organize expeditions and direct excavations that lead to discoveries of fossil Hominidae, and then engage in the painstaking repair and reconstruction of specimens, their anatomical description, comparison with other specimens, and placement in hominid phylogeny. See also Fossil humans.

Morphological paleoanthropologists must have detailed knowledge of human and other primate anatomy and the principles of taxomony in order to restore and interpret their discoveries. In addition to traditional anatomical descriptions and measurements, it is requisite that the variations in samples be presented and, when possible, be tested for statistical significance. Because of the fragmentary nature of many fossils, one of the most difficult problems is to decide whether the new discoveries belong with previously described species or represent new undescribed ones.

Paleoprimatology

Physical anthropologists also look to nonhuman primates for clues to human physical history and status as mammals, and for analogies to the behavior and cognitive abilities of human ancestors. Like paleoanthropologists, paleoprimatologists employ methods of other paleobiologists to collect, describe, and interpret fossil specimens phylogenetically and functionally. Contextual information, including the manner in which specimens were deposited and their possible alteration over time, is vital. See also Fossil primates.

Comparative primate morphology

Recent primates, including humans, are the current end products of evolution. Anatomical studies of modern primates are essential for reconstructing the morphologies of fossil forms and for revealing their singularity. Carefully controlled comparative studies on extant primates hold the greatest promise for modeling the functional morphology, physiology, and habitat preferences of extinct forms. Since 1970, advanced techniques and concepts from rehabilitation medicine, orthopedics, orthodontics, radiology, and neurology have been used to establish a truly functional morphology of the primates.

Molecular anthropology

The explosion of molecular biology that followed the cracking of the genetic code attracted physical anthropologists who wished to test hypotheses about the propinquity of humans with the apes, and the relationships of other primates to one another and to other creatures. Some have endeavored to find “molecular clocks” that could tell when species diverged from one another. Assuming that genetic changes occur at fairly steady rates and given a few well-dated fossils, the time when the living species may have branched from one another can be calculated. See also Molecular anthropology.

Primate behavior and ecology

Although firmly rooted in comparative psychology, behavioral primatology has also become a major section of physical anthropology; anthropologists have contributed mainly through field studies. An original goal of primate field studies by anthropologists was to find predictable relationships between specific habitats and the patterns of sociality of the primates that inhabit them. Because of their close genetic relationships to humans, chimpanzees have emerged as the most popular model for early hominid sociality. But theorists emphasizing different aspects of their behavior arrive at markedly different models for early hominid behavior.

Human variation

The term human variation is rapidly replacing its historical predecessor “race” in anthropology because the latter carries so much negative connotation. Many scientists believe that the concept of race should be abandoned. Instead, researchers should simply record the gene frequencies and biological traits of human populations that are otherwise identified only by their geographic localities. This genotypic and phenotypic information would be interpreted in terms of historical and proximate selective forces in each environment. See also Human genetics; Human variation.

Skeletal biology

Some skeletal biologists have adopted functional approaches from primatological anthropology, and have been discerning the genetic determinants of nonmetric (discrete) and measurable (continuous) traits that would allow them to document the local history of burial populations in an area.

Paleopathology

Human bones and teeth sometimes reflect diseases and mechanical trauma during the lifetime of an individual. Rehydrated soft tissues of mummies may show evidence of parasitic infestations and lesions, such as those from cancer and tuberculosis. Such studies allow reasonable correlations of disease features with demography, ecology, diet, and social factors. See also Paleopathology.

Growth, physique, and aging

The field of growth studies has developed robustly as part of physical anthropology since the 1940s. Standards for the appearance and ossification of bones and for sexual maturation have been established so that congenital, nutritional, and other environmental effects can be detected and often corrected clinically in children and adolescents. It has been established from global nutritional surveys that small adult size is correlated with dietary insufficiency. Since 1975, physical anthropologists have begun to apply anthropometric and microscopic techniques to the study of aging in an effort to understand why some people have greater longevity. See also Aging; Nutrition.

Nutritional anthropology

Refined chemical assays promise to reveal past diets from hominid skeletal remains. Hence paleonutrition has emerged as a special focus for technical research. Trace elements, such as strontium (Sr), sodium (Na), zinc (Zn), and calcium (Ca), may indicate the nutrients that were incorporated in bones, so that classes of food items can be inferred. The kind of carbon (C¹²–C¹³ ratios) in bones may indicate the types of plants that were eaten. This is an important tool for following the spread of maize agriculture in the New World. Protein and vitamin D deficiencies are indicated by flatness of the skull base relative to the skulls of better-nourished people.

Blood group genetics and disease

Many human features such as stature, head shape, epidermal pigmentation, and fingerprints are caused by undetermined multifactorial genetic systems whose phenotypic expression is commonly affected by environmental factors. In contrast, the genetics of blood group systems (such as ABO, MNS, and Rh) are based on single gene loci and are well understood. See also Blood groups; Fingerprint; Population genetics.

Human adaptability and ecology

Homo sapiens is one of the most versatile species on Earth. The invention and ramification of culture has permitted people to survive on impoverished islands and in climatic extremes of high altitude, deserts, and polar regions. In addition to many clever technological and social conventions, people show physiological and ontogenetic characteristics that enhance their survival and ability to work in harsh environments. The extent to which these features are genetically determined is still largely unknown. See also Human ecology.

Forensic anthropology

Forensic anthropology is growing quickly, as anthropologists are called as expert witnesses regarding not only classic sorts of criminal evidence (fingerprints, blood types, and skeletal remains) but also grisly exhibits such as bloody footprints and bite marks on murder victims. In criminal cases, forensic anthropologists operate best if contextual evidence is preserved, particularly when the victims were hidden in graves. Here the techniques of field archeology can be as important as those of physical anthropology. See also Anthropology; Archeology; Forensic anthropology.

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n

The study of the physical attributes of a society or isolate.

[Ge]

The biological aspects of anthropology including the study of fossil human beings, genetics, primates, and blood groups.