pictogram

(pĭk'tə-grăm')

[Latin pictus, past participle of pingere, to paint; see pictograph + -GRAM.]

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A diagram (see diagram overleaf) in which frequency or quantity is represented by symbols that are small images of the objects or material being counted. The diagram should indicate exactly how many, or how much, each symbol represents.

Pictogram. The diagram shows, for 1984, the average number of people per dwelling in five countries. In the diagram each extra stick person represents one extra person per dwelling. The two European countries are very similar and differ markedly from the other countries.

A map of distributions where pictorial symbols such as motor cars or soldiers are placed on the location of the phenomenon mapped. The symbols may be drawn to some scale to indicate the sizes of the distribution, but this can be very misleading if they are scaled to the height of the symbol, as the accompanying increase in breadth misrepresents the actual dimensions.

The term pictogram was used by Piera Aulagnier to describe the primal form of representation that is shared by all subjects but retains a special force of attraction for psychotics. According to Aulagnier, a pictogram represents not an object but the uncompleted experience of an encounter between a sensory zone and an object capable of completing it. The term thus has no relation to the way in which Freud used it in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900a) in connection to writing with images (Bilderschrift) in the dream-work. A pictogram is a representation of an instantaneous action (introjecting/rejecting) whose principle feature, in this stage when the psyche is still unaware of anything outside itself, is the specular relation that comprises it.

Aulagnier's theory of the primal may be held alongside what Freud wrote in "Negation" (1925h) about the workings of the activity of the judgment that attributes existence based on an evaluation of whether an object is good or bad: "Expressed in the language of the oldest-the oral-instinctual impulses, the judgment is: 'I should like to eat this,' or 'I should like to spit it out'; and, put more generally, 'I should like to take this into myself and to keep that out.' That is to say: 'It shall be inside me' or 'it shall be outside me'. As I have shown elsewhere, the original pleasure-ego wants to introject into itself everything that is good and to eject from itself everything that is bad." (p. 237) In Aulagnier's view, introjection and rejection entail consequences for the psychical agency involved. In The Violence of Interpretation: From Pictogram to Statement (1975/2001), she writes, "seen, heard, tasted will be either well perceived by the psyche as a source of pleasure of its own production, and therefore especially forming part of what is 'taken' inside itself, or as a source of pain to be rejected and this rejection implies that the psyche cuts off from itself what, in its own representation, brings into play the organ and the zone, the source and seat of excitation" (p. 22). The postulate of a self-procreation specific to the primal is logically deducible from the fact that at this stage the object, whether it is to be put inside or outside of the self, is not external to the self in question, which is nothing more than a collection of sensations.

Having thus defined the pictogram on the basis of the dichotomy between introjecting and rejecting, Aulagnier took yet another step toward structural definition, no longer of the represented, but of the representative—of the psyche itself—as she had done for the primary and secondary processes. At issue here was the definition of psychical agencies other than those posited by Freud but that do not replace the latter and, above all, whose origin is different because each case involves the reflection (in the literal sense) of mental activity onto itself. The influence of Jacques Lacan's mirror stage (1966/2004) is felt here, but Aulagnier retained from that model only the movement of specularization, which she viewed as a constant of mental activity from its very beginnings. In The Violence of Interpretation she wrote that "any creation of the psychical activity is presented to the psyche as a reflection, a presentation to itself" (p. 24). This process becomes difficult to grasp, however, when the dichotomy between reflecting agent and reflected object does not yet exist; but whereas other authors had spoken of indissociability or fusion in these instances, Aulagnier adhered to the notion of the specular image. In the same book she wrote: "If one accepts that in this phase the world-the outside-the-psyche-has no existence other than in the pictographic representation that the primal makes of it, it follows that the psyche encounters the world as a fragment of specular surface, in which it mirrors its own reflection" (p. 24).

One might think that Aulagnier was begging the question when she asked us to consider a self (that is, a representing agency that is not yet either the Freudian ego nor what Aulagnier called the I) that can only know of the outside that which is given as a reflection of the self in question, and that can only know itself as that which has engendered the fragment that itself reflects it. The whole question, so thorny in Freud's work, of the outcome of primary narcissism is found again here, but here, too, it is appropriate not to conceptualize in realist terms what is presented as a theoretical fiction. What ensures that there is a way out of this play of mirrors is simply, as in Freud, the difference that exists between a representation of the object and the real object able to satisfy a need. The mind must thus face the obligation—and this from the beginning, even if the description of these mechanisms leads to evoking them in succession—to acknowledge that the breast is an object different from the mind's body itself, that it has an independence and is thus not self-generated.

What are the effects of desire and non-desire at the level of the primal representation constituted by the pictogram? To the extent the psyche engages in making representations, they point to the fact that it itself has produced the hated object and even—owing to the specular relation—that it at least partially identifies with the latter. "In this case," wrote Aulagnier in The Violence of Interpretation, "the agency that sees itself in the represented contemplates itself as a source of its own pain; it then tries to annul and destroy that image of itself" (pp. 19-20).

What Melanie Klein theorized as splitting between a "good breast" and a hated "bad breast" has been conceptualized in various ways. Freud for one asserted that the bad comes before the good to the extent that the obligation to desire disturbs an anterior mythical state of quiescence that is actually prior to life itself. Aulagnier did not adopt this perspective, in the sense that she saw love and hate of the object as appearing simultaneously. Freud, however, viewed hate as the initial repudiation of the external world by the narcissistic ego; in "Instincts and Their Vicissitudes" (1915c), he wrote: "Hate, as a relation to objects, is older than love. It derives from the narcissistic ego's primordial repudiation of the external world with its outpouring of stimuli" (p. 139).

To the extent that, according to Aulagnier, primary narcissism is not a closed unity but rather the reflection that the representative perceives of itself in its self-generated representations, there is always either simultaneously, depending on whether we side with Eros or Thanatos, the image of a encounter involving pleasure, or that of a delay or a lack that occasions unpleasure. Thus, in Aulagnier's view, getting rid of the bad by rejecting it will require, since the bad is indissociably linked to a bad sensory zone that has engendered it, the destruction of the latter. "The wish to destroy the object," she wrote in The Violence of Interpretation, "will always be accompanied, in the primal, by the wish to annihilate an erogeneous, sensory zone, as well as the activity of which that zone is the seat" (pp. 27-28). According to Freud, rejection allows a "purified pleasure-ego" to remain. In this instance it cuts off a part of the representative's self, a process viewed by Aulagnier as the "archaic prototype of castration" (p. 28) that will be reshaped into a fantasm at a later stage. Where she is in agreement with Freud, on the other hand, is in the preeminence of Thanatos over Eros, since the latter can only win out by desiring an object that, by means of the satisfaction it brings, leads, at least momentarily, to a state of nondesire, of quiescence.

The analysis of the pictogram Aulagnier proposes amounts to developing, affirming, and complicating the notion of the drive and its representative. But where Freud spoke of excitation, need, or instinct, Aulagnier preserved the notion of a "body" that she described as being simultaneously—the provider of representational-models for the psyche, the irreducible proof of the existence of a "somewhere else," the privileged object of a desire for destruction and, lastly, the source and locus of an erotogenic pleasure.

The originality and the fruitfulness of the notion of the pictogram derive from the fact that its structure is based on specularity. This notion also allows an approach to psychosis based on the fact that, for the future psychotic, the experience of conjunction is most often one of violence and intrusion, and not one of a complementarity that occasions pleasure. This could be compared to the idea Winnicott furthered in "Psychosis and Child Care" (1952), of the need for "good enough" environment-that is, one that for a time preserves the illusion of omnipotence and thus an image of self-procreation formed under the influence of pleasure and Eros. As Aulagnier wrote in The Violence of Interpretation, a specific feature of psychosis is "to make possible the re-presentation between the primal space and the space outside-the-self of a state of specularisation" (p. 31).

Bibliography

Aulagnier, Piera. (2001). The violence of interpretation: From pictogram to statement. (Alan Sheridan, Trans.). Hove, U.K., and Philadelphia: Brunner/Routledge. (Original work published 1975) ——. (1979). Les destins du plaisir. Aliénation, amour, passion. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

——. (1984). L'apprenti-historien et le maître-sorcier. Du discours identifiant au discours délirant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part I., SE, 4: 1-338; The interpretation of dreams. Part II., SE, 5: 339-625.

——. (1915c). Instincts and their vicissitudes. SE, 14: 109-140.

——. (1925h). Negation. SE, 19: 233-239.

Lacan, Jacques. (2004). The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience. Écrits: A selection (Bruce Fink, Trans.) (pp.3-9). New York: W. W. Norton. (Original work published 1966)

Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1998). Penser la psychose. Une lecture de Piera Aulagnier. Paris: Dunod.

Winnicott, Donald W. (1958). Psychosis and child care. In his Collected papers: Through paediatrics to psycho-analysis (pp. 219-228). London: Tavistock Publications. (Original work published 1952)

—SOPHIE DE MIJOLLA-MELLOR

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Writing systems
History Grapheme List of writing systems
Types
Featural alphabet Alphabet Abjad Abugida Syllabary Logography Shorthand
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Pictogram Ideogram

A pictogram, also called a pictogramme or pictograph,^[1] is an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Pictographs are often used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters are to considerable extent pictorial in appearance.

Pictography is a form of writing which uses representational, pictorial drawings. It is a basis of cuneiform and, to some extent, hieroglyphic writing, which uses drawings also as phonetic letters or determinative rhymes.

Contents 1 Historical 2 Modern use 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links

Historical

Early written symbols were based on pictographs (pictures which resemble what they signify) and ideograms (symbols which represent ideas). Ancient Chinese, Sumerian, and Egyptian civilizations began to use such symbols over 5000 years ago, developing them into logographic writing systems around the third millennium BCE. Pictographs are still in use as the main medium of written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, The Americas, and Oceania. Pictographs are often used as simple, pictorial, representational symbols by most contemporary cultures.

Ojibwa pictographs on cliff-face at Agawa Rock, Lake Superior Provincial Park

Pictographs can often transcend languages in that they can communicate to speakers of a number of tongues and language families equally effectively, even if the languages and cultures are completely different. This is why road signs and similar pictographic material are often applied as global standards expected to be understood by nearly all.

Pictographs can also take the form of diagrams to represent statistical data by pictorial forms, and can be varied in color, size, or number to indicate change.

Pictographs can be considered an art form, and are designated as such in Pre-Columbian art, Native American art, and Painting in the Americas before Colonization. One example of many is the Rock art of the Chumash people, part of the Native American history of California. In 2011, UNESCO World Heritage adds to its list a new site "Petroglyphs Complexes of the Mongolian Altai, Mongolia"^[2] to celebrate the importance of the pictograms engraved in rocks.

Some scientists in the field of neuropsychiatry and neuropsychology, such as Prof. Dr. Mario Christian Meyer, are studying the symbolic meaning of indigenous pictograms and petroglyphs,^[3] aiming to create new ways of communication between native people and modern scientists to safeguard and valorize their cultural diversity.^[4]

Modern use

Pictographs remain in common use today, serving as pictorial, representational signs, instructions, or statistical diagrams. Because of their graphical nature and fairly realistic style, they are widely used to indicate public toilets, or places such as airports and train stations.

A standard set of pictographs was defined in the international standard ISO 7001: Public Information Symbols. Another common set of pictographs are the laundry symbols used on clothing tags and chemical hazard labels.

Pictographic writing as a modernist poetic technique is credited to Ezra Pound, though French surrealists accurately credit the Pacific Northwest American Indians of Alaska who introduced writing, via totem poles, to North America.^[5]

Contemporary artist Xu Bing created Book from the Ground, a universal language made up of pictograms collected from around the world. A Book from the Ground chat program has been exhibited in museums and galleries internationally.

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  Native American Pictographs from the Great Gallery, Horseshoe Canyon, Canyonlands National Park

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  Sample National Park Service pictographs

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  Pictograph from 1510 telling a story of coming of missionaries to Hispaniola

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  Water, rabbit, deer pictographs on a replica of an Aztec Stone of the Sun

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  British Rail passenger safety pictographs at the end of the platform at Meols railway station

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  A pictograph warning against swimming because of crocodiles at the Australia Zoo.

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  "No Dogs!" sign in Spain. The dog illustration is a pictograph. The red circle and bar is an ideogram representing the idea of "no" or "not allowed."

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  Push Sign for doors. Bowed door to the right shows force of door being pushed.

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  Pull Sign for doors. Bowed door to the left shows force of door being pulled.

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  The top traffic sign warns people of horses and riders.

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  ‎ A Recycling symbol.

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See also

Look up pictogram in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Asemic writing
• Chinese character
• Chumash Rock Art
• Crop art
• DOT pictograms
• Emoticon
• Icon (computing)
• iConji (social networking)
• Ideogram
• Pecked curvilinear nucleated
• Petroforms
• Petroglyph
• Rebus
• Rock Art
• Writing system
• Yakima Indian Painted Rocks
• Pictorial push pull signs for doors

Notes

1. ^ Gove, Philip Babcock. (1993). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Merriam-Webster Inc. ISBN 0-87779-201-1.
2. ^ http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1382
3. ^ http://unesdoc.UNESCO.org/images/0006/000678/067843F.pdf
4. ^ http://www.pisad.bio.br/artigos/amazonupclose_outoftheforest.pdf
5. ^ Reed 2003, p. xix

References

• Reed, Ishmael (2003). From Totems to Hip-Hop: A Multicultural Anthology of Poetry Across the Americas, 1900-2002, Ishmael Reed, ed. ISBN 1-56025-458-0.

External links

• Pictogram & Communication: About 1,500 practial pictograms based on Design principles of pictorial symbols for communication support(JIS T 0103:2005)
• CAPL:The Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon, photographic illustrations of objects for multiple languages
• Pictogram Encyclopedia, The collection site of more than 500 pictograms, Pictograms are categorized, and easy to find unique pictogram
• Pictopen - Modern Pictographic Writing

Links to related articles v d e Visualization of technical information Fields Biological data visualization · Chemical imaging · Crime mapping · Data visualization · Educational visualization · Flow visualization · Geovisualization · Information visualization · Mathematical visualization · Medical imaging · Molecular graphics · Product visualization · Scientific visualization · Software visualization · Technical drawing · Visual culture · Volume visualization Image types Chart · Diagram · Graph of a function · Engineering drawing · Ideogram · Map · Photograph · Pictogram · Plot · Statistical graphics · Table · Technical drawings · Technical illustration Experts Jacques Bertin · Stuart Card · Thomas A. DeFanti · Michael Friendly · Nigel Holmes · Alan MacEachren · Jock D. Mackinlay · Michael Maltz · Bruce H. McCormick · Charles Joseph Minard · Otto Neurath · William Playfair · Clifford A. Pickover · Arthur H. Robinson · Lawrence J. Rosenblum · Adolphe Quetelet · George G. Robertson · Ben Shneiderman · Edward Tufte Related topics Cartography · Computer graphics · Computer graphics (computer science) · Model-based definition · Graph drawing · Graphic design · Graphic organizer · Imaging science · Information graphics · Information science · Mental visualisation · Neuroimaging · Scientific modelling · Spatial analysis · Visual analytics · Visual perception v d e Writing systems Overview History of writing History of the alphabet Graphemes Scripts in Unicode Lists Writing systems Languages by writing system / by first written account Undeciphered writing systems Inventors of writing systems Types Featural alphabets Alphabets Abjads Alphasyllabaries / Abugidas Syllabaries Semi-syllabaries Ideogrammic Pictographic Logographic Numeral

v d e Prehistoric technology Outline of prehistoric technology  · History of technology Architectural Dwellings Early architecture  · Burdei  · Cave  · Cliff-dwelling  · Dugout  · Great house  · Hut  · Jacal  · Lean-to  · Longhouse  · Pile dwelling  · Pit-house  · Pueblitos  · Pueblo  · Rock shelter  · Roundhouse  · Stilt house  · Tent Ceremonial structures Earliest religious structure  · Kiva  · Pyramid  · Temple Water management Cistern  · Check dam  · Reservoir  · Water well Other Burnt mound  · Causewayed enclosure  · Henge  · Midden  · Archaeological features  · Megalithic architecture Tools Hunting Arrow  · Atlatl  · Bow and arrow  · Dart  · Projectile point  · Spear  · Snare trap Food processing Fire  · Basket  · Granaries  · Grinding slab  · Ground stone  · Hearth  · Manos  · Metate  · Mortar and pestle  · Pottery  · Quern-stone  · Storage pit Farming Introduction of Agriculture  · Ard / plough  · Celt  · Digging stick  · Domestication  · Goad  · Irrigation  · Sickle  · Terracing Toolmaking Earliest toolmaking  · Biface  · Cupstone  · Hafting  · Hand axe · Lithic core  · Lithic reduction  · Prepared-core technique  · Tool stone  · Striking platform Other tools Axe  · Adze  · Awl  · Blade  · Bone tool  · Bow drill  · Burin  · Cleaver  · Chopper  · Denticulate tool  · Hammerstone  · Hand axe  · Knife  · Rope  · Quern-stone  · Scraper  · Stone tool  · Weapons  · Wheel Arts and culture Material goods Basketmaking  · Beadwork  · Clothing  · Clothing and textiles  · Metallurgy  · Pottery  · Weaving Prehistoric art Earliest art  · Cairn  · Cave painting  · Geoglyph  · Ideograms  · List of prehistoric artworks  · Megalithic art  · Paleoart  · Petroform  · Petroglyph  · Petrosomatoglyph  · Pictogram  · Rock art  · Stone circle Other cultural Develop abstract thought  · Human development and religion  · Music archaeology  · Prehistoric music Burial Burial mounds  · Chamber tomb  · Cist  · Cremation  · Dolmen  · Funeral pyre · Grave  · Jar-burials  · Megalithic tomb  · Mummy  · Stone box grave

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