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The most structurally and functionally complex organ of the endocrine system. Through its hormones, the pituitary, also known as the hypophysis, affects every physiological process of the body. All vertebrates have a pituitary gland with a common basic structure and function. In addition to its endocrine functions, the pituitary may play a role in the immune response.

The hypophysis of all vertebrates has two major segments—the neurohypophysis (a neural component) and the adenohypophysis (an epithelial component)—each with a different embryological origin. The neurohypophysis develops from a downward process of the diencephalon (the base of the brain), whereas the adenohypophysis originates as an outpocketing of the primitive buccal epithelium, known as Rathke's pouch. The adenohypophysis has three distinct subdivisions: the pars tuberalis, the pars distalis, and the pars intermedia. The neurohypophysis comprises the pars nervosa and the infundibulum. The latter consists of the infundibular stalk and the median eminence of the tuber cinereum.

The structural intimacy of neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis that is established early during embryogenesis reflects the direct functional interaction between the central nervous system and endocrine system. The extent of this anatomical intimacy varies considerably among the vertebrate classes, from limited contact to intimate interdigitation. Vascular or neuronal pathways, or both, provide the means of exchanging chemical signals, thus enabling centers in the brain to exert control over the synthesis and release of adenohypophysial hormones.

Neurohormones, which are synthesized in specific regions of the brain, are conveyed to the neurohypophysis by way of axonal tracts, where they may be stored in distended axonal endings. Axons may also contact blood vessels and discharge their neurosecretory products into the systemic circulation or into a portal system leading to the adenohypophysis, or they may directly innervate pituitary gland cells. See also Neurosecretion.

In most animals, the vascular link is the prime route of information transfer between brain and pituitary gland. This link begins in the tuber cinereum, the portion of the third ventricle floor that extends toward the infundibulum. The lower tuber cinereum, which is known as the median eminence, is well endowed with blood vessels that drain down into the pituitary stalk and ultimately empty into the anterior pituitary. The vascular link between the median eminence and the pituitary gland is known as the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system. The median eminence in humans is vascularized by the paired superior hypophysial arteries. The pituitary gland is believed to have the highest blood flow rate of any organ in the body. However, its blood is received indirectly via the median eminence and the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system. Most of the blood flow is from the brain to the pituitary gland, with retrograde flow from the adenohypophysis to the hypothalamus, suggesting a two-way communication between nervous and endocrine systems. Although the brain is protected from the chemical substances in the circulatory system by the blood–brain barrier, the median eminence lies outside that protective mechanism and is therefore permeable to intravascular substances. See also Brain.

The hormones of the adenohypophysis may be grouped into three categories based on chemical and functional similarities. The first category consists of growth hormone (also known as somatotropin) and prolactin, both of which are large, single, polypeptide chains; the second category consists of the glycoprotein hormones; this family of hormones contains the gonadotropins and thyrotropin. The gonadotropins in many species, including humans, can be segregated into two distinct hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. The third group comprises adrenocortiotropic hormone and melanotropin (MSH; melanocyte-stimulating hormone). See also Adenohypophysis hormone.

The regulation of the release of pituitary hormones is determined by precise monitoring of circulating hormone levels in the blood and by genetic and environmental factors that manifest their effect through the releasing and release-inhibiting factors of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain (the diencephalon) below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland, forming the walls and the lower portion of the third ventricle. It receives major neuronal inputs from the sense organs, hippocampus, thalamus, and lower brainstem structures, including the reticular formation and the spinal cord. Thus, the hypothalamus is designed and anatomically positioned to receive a diversity of messages from external and internal sources that can be transmitted by way of hypothalamic releasing factors to the pituitary gland, where they are translated into endocrine action. See also Nervous system (vertebrate).

The neurohypophysis hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin, are synthesized in different neurons of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus and travel by axonal flow to the terminals in the neurohypophysis for storage and ultimate release into the vascular system. Oxytocin is important in stimulating milk release through its contractile action on muscle elements in the mammary gland. It also stimulates uterine smooth muscle contraction at parturition. Vasopressin affects water retention by its action on certain kidney tubules. Thus, it also affects blood pressure. See also Lactation; Neurohypophysis hormone.

The better-known neurotransmitters of the central nervous system include the catecholamines (dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine), serotonin, acetylcholine, gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), histamine, and the opioid peptides (enkephalins, endorphins, dynorphin, neoendorphin, rimorphin, and leumorphin). These substances are distributed widely in the central nervous system and, for most, also in the pituitary gland. If a particular amine or neurotransmitter is present in nerve fibers leading to the median eminence, it probably will influence pituitary gland activity via the portal system. Dopamine, serotonin, gamma-amino butyric acid, and acetylcholine are best known for such activity. These neurotransmitters play an important, but poorly understood, role in regulating pituitary function, either directly or by their action on neuropeptide-producing neurons. Understanding the pharmacology of neurotransmitters holds promise for the treatment of basic disorders of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. See also Acetylcholine; Endocrine system (vertebrate); Endorphins; Histamine; Hormone; Neurobiology; Neuroimmunology; Pituitary gland disorders; Serotonin.

This gland, also termed the hypophysis cerebri, lies in a bony cavity, the sella turcica, so called because it was thought to resemble a Turkish saddle. It lies under the part of the brain known as the hypothalamus (whose location gives rise to its name, derived from the Greek, hypo meaning under and phyen to grow). It is connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk and in man is divided into two lobes, the anterior and the posterior, which develop in the embryo from completely different types of cell. The anterior lobe arises from below — from the same source as the mouth — and is made up of hormone-producing cells; the posterior lobe is developmentally a downward extension of the brain, and contains the endings of nerve fibres that arise from nerve cell bodies in one of two groups of cells (‘nuclei’) in the hypothalamus.

The existence of the pituitary gland was known before the time of Aristotle (384-22 bc), but it was only in the twentieth century that its true function was identified. Galen, the Greek physician and dogmatic teacher whose writing dominated Byzantine, Arabic, and medieval mdicine for a millennium, thought the pituita, one of four humours, passed from the brain to the nasal cavity. Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian anatomist, was of a similar opinion, believing that waste material produced in the formation of the vital spirit was drained from the brain via the pituitary gland. This view was challenged in the seventeenth century and debate about its function continued through the eighteenth and into the nineteenth century. It was only at the end of the nineteenth century, when clinical disorders were recognized as being associated with pituitary tumours, that its real function as an endocrine organ was established.

The anterior pituitary

contains five different types of cell, each of which produce one particular hormone, with the exception of the ‘gonadotrophs’ which produce two: namely luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicular stimulating hormone (FSH). All the hormones are peptide or protein in nature, varying in size from 39 amino acids (ACTH) to 204 amino acids (LH and FSH). The hormones fall into two groups: the first contains the four trophic hormones (from the Greek for nourishment), which control other endocrine glands; the second contains prolactin and growth hormone, which have more widespread effects in the body.

The trophic hormones act to stimulate secretion of hormone from the target gland and to maintain its function and, if present in high concentrations, will cause the gland to enlarge. They are:

(i) thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the secretion of the thyroid hormones;
(ii) adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which acts on the adrenal cortex to promote the release of cortisol;
(iii) gonadotrophins LH and FSH, which act on the ovaries and testes. They are however named after their effects in women; FSH stimulates growth of the ovarian follicle containing the ovum or egg and LH stimulates production of oestrogen and progesterone from the ovary. The actions in the male are analogous; FSH stimulates sperm production and LH stimulates testosterone production by the testes.

Prolactin acts chiefly to cause milk production in the breasts.

Growth hormone has widespread effects, necessary not only for growth itself but also for metabolism throughout life.

Because the pituitary controls so many endocrine functions in the body it has been called ‘the conductor of the endocrine orchestra’, but more recent discoveries suggested that this term more properly belongs to the hypothalamus, with the pituitary being comparable to the leader of the orchestra. Since the nerves going to the anterior pituitary only supply the blood vessels there was some debate as to how the gland was controlled. It is now known that the hypothalamus produces stimulatory and inhibitory hormones, and that these reach the anterior pituitary via a network of small blood vessels or capillaries. The hormones are produced in nerve cells whose endings abut on the capillaries at the top of the pituitary stalk. This control of the pituitary by the central nervous system allows blood concentrations of the hormones to respond to a variety of external stimuli including stress. It also allows for complex patterning of release. Pituitary hormones in general are released in a pulsatile fashion, with many pulses during the day, and they can also show 24 hour (diurnal) rhythms. The gonadotrophins, linked into the human menstrual cycle, show a 28 day rhythm, while in animals which are seasonal breeders prolactin shows a seasonal rhythm. Blood concentrations of pituitary hormones are controlled not only by the hypothalamic hormones but by feedback, usually negative, exerted by target organ hormones such as cortisol or progesterone.

The posterior pituitary

Two hormones are released from the posterior lobe, oxytocin and vasopressin (syn. antidiuretic hormone) . These, like the releasing hormones that reach the anterior lobe, are produced within nerve cells in the hypothalamus. But in this case the axons travel right down the pituitary stalk, and the nerve endings release the hormones directly into the bloodstream (see endocrine). The activity of the posterior pituitary hormones was established around 1900 in the UK by Schafer (a physiologist) and his colleagues working on what proved to be the actions of vasopressin, and Dale, a pharmacologist and Nobel Prize winner working on oxytocin. Vasopressin plays a role in water balance and the maintenance of blood pressure, normal circulating concentrations causing water to be retained by the kidney and higher concentrations causing blood vessels to constrict, thus raising blood pressure. As with the anterior pituitary, control via the hypothalamus means that release of posterior pituitary hormones can be regulated by a variety of nervous inputs; the main stimuli for vasopressin release are an increase in the concentration of the blood plasma and a decrease in circulating blood volume, both of which reflect a fall in total body water. Oxytocin is important for the birth of an infant and for delivery of the milk supply.

— Mary L. Forsling

See endocrine. See also growth hormone; hormones; hypothalamus; oxytocin; peptides; water balance.

An endocrine gland that coordinates the activities of many other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland is derived from and attached to the base of the brain. The activity of the pituitary gland is largely controlled by inhibiting and releasing factors secreted by the hypothalamus. Hormones produced by the pituitary include adrenocorticotropio (ACTH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), growth hormone (GH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

A small gland, attached to the base of the brain and controlled by the hypothalamus, that functions in the endocrine system. The pituitary gland secretes many hormones: some control the actions of other glands, whereas others influence growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

(hypophysis), an endocrine gland located at the base of the brain in the sella turcica. The pituitary gland is composed of two parts: the pars nervosa, which is an extension of the anterior part of the hypothalamus, and the pars intermedia, which is an epithelial evagination of secretory tissue from the stomodeum of the embryo. By its structural and functional relationships with the nervous system and the endocrine glands, it acts as a mediator of both the nervous system and the endocrine system.

• Endocrine System and Glands - pituitary gland: endocrine gland beneath floor of brain that controls action of all other endocrine glands

Pituitary gland
Located at the base of the brain, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
Median sagittal through the hypophysis of an adult monkey. Semidiagrammatic.
Latin	hypophysis, glandula pituitaria
Gray's	subject #275 1275
Artery	superior hypophyseal artery, infundibular artery, prechiasmal artery, inferior hypophyseal artery, capsular artery, artery of the inferior cavernous sinus[1]
Precursor	neural and oral ectoderm, including Rathke's pouch
MeSH	Pituitary+Gland
Dorlands/Elsevier	Pituitary gland

In vertebrate anatomy the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is not a part of the brain. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem (Pituitary stalk). The pituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis.

Contents 1 Sections 1.1 Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis) 1.2 Posterior pituitary (Neurohypophysis) 1.3 Intermediate lobe 1.4 Variations among vertebrates 2 Functions 3 Additional images 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

Sections

The pituitary gland consists of two components: the anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis), and is functionally linked to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (also named the "infundibular stem", or simply the "infundibulum"). It is from the hypothalamus that hypothalamic tropic factors are released to descend down the pituitary stalk to the pituitary gland where they stimulate the release of pituitary hormones. While the pituitary gland is known as the 'master' endocrine gland, both of the lobes are under the control of the hypothalamus; the anterior pituitary receives its signals from the parvocellular neurons and the posterior pituitary receives its signals from magnocellular neurons.^[2]

Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

Main article: Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes the following important endocrine hormones:

Somatotrophins:

• Growth hormone (also referred to as 'Human Growth Hormone', 'HGH' or 'GH' or somatotropin), released under influence of hypothalamic Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH); inhibited by hypothalamic Somatostatin

Thyrotrophins:

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), released under influence of hypothalamic Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)

Corticotropins:

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), released under influence of hypothalamic Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
• Beta-endorphin, released under influence of hypothalamic Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)^[3]

Lactotrophins:

• Prolactin (PRL), also known as 'Luteotropic' hormone (LTH), whose release is inconsistently stimulated by hypothalamic TRH, oxytocin, vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, angiotensin II, neuropeptide Y, galanin, substance P, bombesin-like peptides (gastrin-releasing peptide, neuromedin B and C), and neurotensin, and inhibited by hypothalamic dopamine.^[4]

Gonadotropins:

• Luteinizing hormone (also referred to as 'Lutropin' or 'LH' or, in males, 'Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone' (ICSH))
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), both released under influence of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Melanotrophins

• Melanocyte–stimulating hormones (MSHs) or "intermedins," as these are released by the pars intermedia, which is "the middle part"; adjacent to the posterior pituitary lobe, pars intermedia is a specific part developed from the anterior pituitary lobe.

These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the influence of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones are secreted to the anterior lobe by way of a special capillary system, called the hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system.

The anterior pituitary is divided into anatomical regions known as the pars tuberalis, pars intermedia, and pars distalis. It develops from a depression in the dorsal wall of the pharynx (stomodial part) known as Rathke's pouch.

Posterior pituitary (Neurohypophysis)

Main article: Posterior pituitary

The posterior pituitary stores and secretes the following important endocrine hormones:

Magnocellular Neurons:

• Oxytocin, most of which is released from the paraventricular nucleus in the hypothalamus
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin and AVP, arginine vasopressin), the majority of which is released from the supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus

Oxytocin is one of the few hormones to create a positive feedback loop. For example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions. This positive feedback loop continues throughout labor.

Intermediate lobe

Although rudimentary in humans (and often considered part of the anterior pituitary), the intermediate lobe located between the anterior and posterior pituitary is important to many animals. For instance, in fish, it is believed to control physiological color change. In adult humans, it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary. The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), although this function is often (imprecisely) attributed to the anterior pituitary.

Variations among vertebrates

The pituitary gland is found in all vertebrates, but its structure varies between different groups.

The division of the pituitary described above is typical of mammals, and is also true, to varying degrees, of all tetrapods. However, only in mammals does the posterior pituitary have a compact shape. In lungfishes, it is a relatively flat sheet of tissue lying above the anterior pituitary, and, in amphibians, reptiles, and birds, it becomes increasingly well developed. The intermediate lobe is, in general, not well developed in tetrapods, and is entirely absent in birds.^[5]

Apart from lungfishes, the structure of the pituitary in fish is generally different from that in tetrapods. In general, the intermediate lobe tends to be well developed, and may equal the remainder of the anterior pituitary in size. The posterior lobe typically forms a sheet of tissue at the base of the pituitary stalk, and in most cases sends irregular finger-like projection into the tissue of the anterior pituitary, which lies directly beneath it. The anterior pituitary is typically divided into two regions, a more anterior rostral portion and a posterior proximal portion, but the boundary between the two is often not clearly marked. In elasmobranchs there is an additional, ventral lobe beneath the anterior pituitary proper.^[5]

The arrangement in lampreys, which are among the most primitive of all fish, may indicate how the pituitary originally evolved in ancestral vertebrates. Here, the posterior pituitary is a simple flat sheet of tissue at the base of the brain, and there is no pituitary stalk. Rathke's pouch remains open to the outside, close to the nasal openings. Closely associated with the pouch are three distinct clusters of glandular tissue, corresponding to the intermediate lobe, and the rostral and proximal portions of the anterior pituitary. These various parts are separated by meningial membranes, suggesting that the pituitary of other vertebrates may have formed from the fusion of a number of separate, but closely associated, glands.^[5]

Most fish also possess a urophysis, a neural secretory gland very similar in form to the posterior pituitary, but located in the tail and associated with the spinal cord. This may have a function in osmoregulation.^[5]

There is an analogous structure in the octopus brain.^[6]

Functions

Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes:

• Growth (Excess of HGH can lead to gigantism and acromegaly.)
• Blood pressure
• Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth including stimulation of uterine contractions during childbirth
• Breast milk production
• Sex organ functions in both males and females
• Thyroid gland function
• The conversion of food into energy (metabolism)
• Water and osmolarity regulation in the body
• Water balance via the control of reabsorption of water by the kidneys
• Temperature regulation

Pituitary gland also makes endorphin to relieve pain and alter mood.

Additional images

• 

  Location of the pituitary gland in the human brain

• 

  Pituitary and pineal glands

• 

  The arteries of the base of the brain.

• 

  Mesal aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane.

• 

  Pituitary

• 

  Pituitary gland

See also

• Pituitary disease
• Head and neck anatomy
• Dantian

References

Look up pituitary gland or hypophysis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

1. ^ Gibo H, Hokama M, Kyoshima K, Kobayashi S (1993). "[Arteries to the pituitary]". Nippon Rinsho 51 (10): 2550–4. PMID 8254920. 
2. ^ Dasen, J. S.; Rosenfeld, M. G. (1999). "Signaling mechanisms in pituitary morphogenesis and cell fate determination". Curr Opin Cell Biol. 11 (6): 669–677. doi:10.1016/S0955-0674(99)00034-4. PMID 10600709. 
3. ^ Knepel W, Homolka L, Vlaskovska M, Nutto D. (1984). Stimulation of adrenocorticotropin/beta-endorphin release by synthetic ovine corticotropin-releasing factor in vitro. Enhancement by various vasopressin analogs. Neuroendocrinology. 38(5):344-50.
4. ^ Shlomo Melmed (3 December 2010). The pituitary. Academic Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-12-380926-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=OFFW68kMpFIC&pg=PA40. 
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 549–550. ISBN 0-03-910284-X. 
6. ^ Wells, M. J.; Wells, J. (1969). "Pituitary Analogue in the Octopus". Nature 222 (5190): 293–294. doi:10.1038/222293a0. 

External links

• NeuroNames hier-382
• Histology at BU 14201loa
• The Pituitary Gland, from the UMM Endocrinology Health Guide
• Oklahoma State, Endocrine System
• Pituitary apoplexy mimicking pituitary abscess
• [1] The Pituitary Foundation

v t e Human systems and organs TA 2–4: MS Skeletal system Bone (Carpus · Collar bone (clavicle) · Thigh bone (femur) · Fibula · Humerus · Mandible · Metacarpus · Metatarsus · Ossicles · Patella · Phalanges · Radius · Skull (cranium) · Tarsus · Tibia · Ulna · Rib · Vertebra · Pelvis · Sternum) · Cartilage Joints Fibrous joint · Cartilaginous joint · Synovial joint Muscular system Muscle · Tendon · Diaphragm TA 5–11: splanchnic/ viscus mostly Thoracic Respiratory system URT (Nose, Nasopharynx, Larynx) · LRT (Trachea, Bronchus, Lung) mostly Abdominopelvic Digestive system+ adnexa Mouth (Salivary gland, Tongue) · upper GI (Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx, Esophagus, Stomach) · lower GI (Small intestine, Appendix, Colon, Rectum, Anus) · accessory (Liver, Biliary tract, Pancreas) GU: Urinary system Kidney · Ureter · Bladder · Urethra GU: Reproductive system Female (Uterus, Vagina, Vulva, Ovary, Placenta) · Male (Scrotum, Penis, Prostate, Testicle, Seminal vesicle) Endocrine system Pituitary · Pineal · Thyroid · Parathyroid · Adrenal · Islets of Langerhans TA 12–16 Circulatory system Cardiovascular system peripheral (Artery, Vein, Lymphatic vessel) · Heart Lymphatic system primary (Bone marrow, Thymus) · secondary (Spleen, Lymph node) Nervous system (Brain, Spinal cord, Nerve) · Sensory system (Ear, Eye) Integumentary system Skin · Subcutaneous tissue · Breast (Mammary gland) Blood (Non-TA) Myeloid Myeloid immune system Lymphoid Lymphoid immune system General anatomy: systems and organs, regional anatomy, planes and lines, superficial axial anatomy, superficial anatomy of limbs

v t e Human anatomy, endocrine system: endocrine glands (TA A11, TH H3.08, GA 11.1269) Islets of pancreas Alpha cell · Beta cell · Delta cell · PP cell · Epsilon cell Hypothalamic/ pituitary axes +parathyroid Pituitary Posterior pituitary Pars nervosa · Median eminence · Infundibular stalk Pituicyte · Herring bodies Anterior pituitary Pars intermedia · Pars tuberalis · Pars distalis Acidophil cell (Somatotropic cell, Prolactin cell) · Basophil cell (Corticotropic cell, Gonadotropic cell, Thyrotropic cell) · Chromophobe cell Thyroid axis Thyroid gland Thyroid isthmus · Lobes of thyroid gland · Pyramidal lobe of thyroid gland Follicular cell · Parafollicular cell Parathyroid gland Chief cell · Oxyphil cell Adrenal axis: Adrenal gland Cortex Zona glomerulosa · Zona fasciculata · Zona reticularis Medulla Medullary chromaffin cell Gonadal axis Gonad: Testes · Ovaries · Corpus luteum Pineal gland Pinealocyte · Corpora arenacea Other Enteroendocrine cell · Paraganglia M: END anat/phys/devp/horm noco(d)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon proc, drug (A10/H1/H2/H3/H5)

v t e Human brain: diencephalon (TA A14.1.08, GA 9.807) Epithalamus Surface Pineal body · Habenula · Habenular trigone · Habenular commissure Grey matter Pretectal area · Habenular nuclei · Subcommissural organ Thalamus Surface Stria medullaris of thalamus · Thalamic reticular nucleus · Taenia thalami Grey matter/ nuclei paired: AN · Ventral (VA/VL, VP/VPM/VPL) · Lateral (LD, LP, Pulvinar nuclei) · Metathalamus (MG, LG) midline: MD · Intralaminar (Centromedian) · Midline nuclear group · Interthalamic adhesion White matter Mammillothalamic fasciculus · Pallidothalamic tracts (Ansa lenticularis, Lenticular fasciculus, Thalamic fasciculus) · PCML (Medial lemniscus, Trigeminal lemniscus) · Spinothalamic tract · Lateral lemniscus · Dentatothalamic tract · Acoustic radiation · Optic radiation · Subthalamic fasciculus · Anterior trigeminothalamic tract Medullary laminae Hypothalamus Surface Median eminence/Tuber cinereum · Mammillary body · Infundibulum Grey matter Autonomic zones Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss) · Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation) Endocrine posterior pituitary: Paraventricular (magnocellular, parvocellular)/Supraoptic (oxytocin/vasopressin) other: Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH) · Preoptic (GnRH) · Suprachiasmatic (melatonin) Emotion Lateral · Ventromedial · Dorsomedial White matter afferent (SN → Medial forebrain bundle) · efferent (Mammillothalamic fasciculus → AN, Stria terminalis → Amygdala, Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus → SC) Pituitary Posterior is diencephalon, but anterior is glandular Subthalamus Subthalamic nucleus · Zona incerta Ventricular system: Third ventricle recesses: (Optic recess, Infundibular recess, Suprapineal recess, Pineal recess) Hypothalamic sulcus · Tela chorioidea of third ventricle Subfornical organ Apertures: Interventricular/Monro Posterior commissure M: CNS anat(n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp noco(m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr proc, drug(N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D)

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