poet laureate

 

(lô'rēĭt) , title conferred in Britain by the monarch on a poet whose duty it is to write commemorative odes and verse. It is an outgrowth of the medieval English custom of having versifiers and minstrels in the king's retinue, and of the later royal patronage of poets, such as Chaucer and Spenser. Ben Jonson seems to have had what amounted to the laureateship from Charles I in 1617, but the present title, adopted from the Greek and Roman custom of crowning with a wreath of laurel, was first given to John Dryden in 1670.

Dryden's successors have been Thomas Shadwell (1688–92), Nahum Tate (1692–1715), Nicholas Rowe (1715–18), Laurence Eusden (1718–30), Colley Cibber (1730–57), William Whitehead (1757–85), Thomas Warton (1785–90), Henry Pye (1790–1813), Robert Southey (1813–43), William Wordsworth (1843–50), Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1850–92), Alfred Austin (1892–1913), Robert Bridges (1913–30), John Masefield (1930–67), Cecil Day Lewis (1968–72), John Betjeman (1972–84), Ted Hughes (1984–98), and Andrew Motion (1999–). In recent years the position's ceremonial duties have largely been eliminated, and it is now no longer a lifetime post.

In the United States, the poet laureate is charged with raising “the national consciousness to a greater appreciation of the reading and writing of poetry.” An annual position, chosen by the Librarian of Congress, it was instituted in 1937 as the consultant in poetry to the Library of Congress. This position was held by 30 poets before a 1985 act of Congress changed the name to poet laureate. In 1986, Robert Penn Warren became the first to hold the title in United States. Since then, American poets laureate have been Richard Wilbur (1987–88), Howard Nemerov (1988–90), Mark Strand (1990–91), Joseph Brodsky (the first foreign-born laureate; 1991–92), Mona Van Duyn (the first woman laureate; 1992–93), Rita Dove (the first African-American laureate; 1993–95), Robert Hass (1995–97), Robert Pinsky (1997–2000), Stanley Kunitz (2000–2001), Billy Collins (2001–3), Louise Glück (2003–04), Ted Kooser (2004–06), Donald Hall (2006–07), and Charles Simic (2007–).

Bibliography

See K. Hopkins, The Poets Laureate (1954, repr. 1966).

A Poet Laureate is a poet officially appointed by a government and often expected to compose poems for State occasions and other government events. The plural form is poets laureate.

In England, the term has for centuries been the title of the official poet of the monarch, appointed for life since the time of Charles II. Poets laureate are appointed by many countries. In Britain there is also a Children's Laureate.

Origin of the term

The laurel, in ancient Greece, was sacred to Apollo, and as such was used to form a crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes; and this usage has been widespread. The word laureate or laureated thus came in English to signify eminent, or associated with glory. Laureate letters were once the despatches announcing a victory. The term laureate became associated with degrees awarded by European universities. The name baccalaureate for the university degree of bachelor involves this idea.

A royal degree in rhetoric, poet laureate was awarded at European universities in the Middle Ages. The term might also refer to the holder of such a degree, which recognised skill in areas of rhetoric, grammar and language. This might be the academic equivalent of a modern day doctorate of poetry.

According to historian Edward Gibbon, Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304–74) of Rome, perhaps best known for his sonnets to the fair-haired, blue-eyed Laura, took the title poet laureate in 1341.

Medieval English kings included versifiers and minstrels in their retinues, and lent their patronage to poets such as Chaucer and Spenser. Academic institutions honoured some such men with the poet laureate degree.

History

From the more general use of the term "poet laureate" arose its restriction in England an official office of Poet Laureate, the poet attached to the royal household. James I essentially created the position as it is known today for Ben Jonson in 1617, although Jonson's appointment does not seem to have been formally made. The office was really a development of the practice of earlier times, when minstrels and versifiers formed part of the King's retinue. Richard Coeur de Lion had a versificator Regis (King's Poet), Gulielmus Peregrinus, and Henry III had a versificator (Master Henry). In the 15th century, John Kay, also a "versifier", described himself as Edward IV's "humble poet laureate." The crown had shown its patronage in various ways; Chaucer had been given a pension and a perquisite of wine by Edward III, and Spenser a pension by Queen Elizabeth I.

No single authentic definitive record exists of the office of Poet Laureate of England. According to Wharton, Henry I paid 10 shillings a year to a Versificator Regis. Geoffrey Chaucer 1340–1400 was called Poet Laureate, being granted in 1389 an annual allowance of wine. W. Hamilton classes Chaucer, Gower, Kay, Andrew Bernard, Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard Edwards, Spenser and Samuel Daniel, as "volunteer Laureates".

John Skelton studied at Oxford University in the early 1480s, and was advanced to the degree of "poet laureate" in 1488. The title of laureate was also conferred on him by the University of Louvain in 1492, and by Cambridge University in 1492–3. He soon became famous for rhetoric, satire and translations. In 1488 Skelton joined the court of Henry VII, tutored Henry VIII and was the official royal poet for most of the next 40 years. He was held in high esteem: "But I pray mayster John Skelton, late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke" — Caxton in the preface to The Boke of Eneydos compyled by Vargyle 1490.

The title of poet laureate was first conferred by letters patent on John Dryden in 1670, two years after Davenant's death. The post then became a regular institution; Dryden's successor Shadwell originated annual birthday and New Year odes. The poet laureate became traditionally responsible to write and present official poetry to commemorate occasions both personal, such as the monarch's birthday and royal births and marriages, and public, such as coronations and military victories. His activity in this respect has varied, according to circumstances, and the custom ceased to be obligatory after Pye's death. The office fell into some contempt before Southey, but took on a new lustre from his personal distinction and that of Wordsworth and Tennyson. Wordsworth stipulated, before accepting the honour, that no formal effusions from him should be considered a necessity; but Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class.

On Tennyson's death there was a considerable feeling that no possible successor was acceptable, William Morris and Swinburne being hardly suitable as court poets. Eventually, however, the undesirability of breaking with tradition for temporary reasons, and thus severing the one official link between literature and the state, prevailed over the protests against allowing anyone of inferior genius to follow Tennyson. It may be noted that abolition had been similarly advocated when Warton and Wordsworth died. Edward Gibbon had condemned the position's artificial approach to poetry:

From Augustus to Louis, the muse has too often been false and venal: but I much doubt whether any age or court can produce a similar establishment of a stipendiary poet, who in every reign, and at all events, is bound to furnish twice a year a measure of praise and verse, such as may be sung in the chapel, and, I believe, in the presence, of the sovereign. I speak the more freely, as the best time for abolishing this ridiculous custom is while the prince is a man of virtue and the poet a man of genius.

— Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Chapter LXX (footnote)

The salary has varied, but traditionally includes some alcohol. Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, and later an annual "terse of Canary wine". Dryden had a pension of £300 and a butt of Canary wine. Pye received £27 instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the Lord Chamberlain's department, and £27 from the Lord Steward's "in lieu of the butt of sack".

List of Poets Laureate of England

Mediæval

• Gulielmus Peregrinus employed by Richard Coeur de Lion
• Master Henry was Versificator Regis, or King's Poet employed by Henry III (according to Thomas Warton)
• Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400)
• John Kay in the reign of Edward IV, 1461–83

Tudor

• Bernard Andre of Toulouse (1450–1522), author of Vita regis Henrici Septimi called himself Poet Laureate under Henry VII
• John Skelton was the Poet Laureate under Henry VIII
• Edmund Spenser died in 1599

Stuart

After Spenser's death, the office was awarded on a more regular basis. Once chosen, poets laureate would serve for life. They received an annual pension, and were expected to write poetry for formal occasions.

• 1599 Samuel Daniel
• 1619 Ben Jonson
• 1637 Sir William Davenant (a godson of William Shakespeare)

Appointed by letters patent

• 1670: John Dryden
• 1688: Thomas Shadwell
• 1692: Nahum Tate
• 1715: Nicholas Rowe
• 1718: Reverend Laurence Eusden
• 1730: Colley Cibber
• 1757: William Whitehead, on the refusal of Thomas Gray
• 1785: Reverend Thomas Warton, on the refusal of William Mason
• 1790: Henry James Pye
• 1813: Robert Southey, on the refusal of Sir Walter Scott
• 1843: William Wordsworth
• 1850: Alfred, Lord Tennyson, on the refusal of Samuel Russell
  

  

  Betjeman's City home
• 1896: Alfred Austin, on the refusal of William Morris
• 1913: Robert Bridges
• 1930: John Masefield, OM
• 1967: Cecil Day-Lewis, CBE
• 1972: Sir John Betjeman, CBE
• 1984: Ted Hughes, OM, on the refusal of Philip Larkin
• 1999: Andrew Motion (for a ten year period)

Poets Laureate in other countries

Other countries have implemented similar official positions to that of the Poet Laureate.

Scotland and Wales

The Scots Makar is the unpaid equivalent of a poet laureate to represent and promote poetry in Scotland. On 16 February, 2004, Professor Edwin Morgan was named to the post.

Wales has had a long tradition of poets and bards under royal patronage, with extant writing from mediæval royal poets and earlier. An office of National Poet for Wales was established in April 2005. The first holder, Gwyneth Lewis, was followed by Gwyn Thomas.

Italy and Poland

In the 13th century, Albertino Mussato, a proto-humanist, was crowned poet laureata in Padova, thanks to his tragedy 'Ecerinis'.

In 1341, Petrarch was made poet laureate in Rome.

Polish neolatin poets were appointed as poeti laureati by popes: Klemens Janicki (1540) and Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1623).

Former Colonies

Other countries (such as South Africa) and organisations (such as the United Nations) have been keen to follow this lead. Australia, even though originally a British colony, has never embraced the title.

U.S.A. and Canada

The United States Library of Congress has since 1937 appointed an official Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress. An act of Congress changed the name of the position in 1985 to Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress. As of 2007, the U.S. Poet Laureate is Charles Simic. Previous U.S. Poets Laureate have included Elizabeth Bishop, Robert Frost, Karl Shapiro, Robert Penn Warren, Joseph Brodsky, Stanley Kunitz, Robert Hass, Donald Hall, Robert Pinsky, Billy Collins, and Ted Kooser, among others.

The Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate is appointed as an officer of the Library of Parliament. Candidates must be able to write in either English or French, must have a substantial publication history (including poetry) displaying literary excellence and must have written work reflecting Canada, among other criteria.

Many U.S. states also have official Poets Laureate. The fashion has also spread to some cities. Most holders of the title reach eminence by public competition; some have also inspired controversy by what they do in office and, as in the case of Amiri Baraka, have sometimes been removed.

Others

Kannadasan was the poet laureate of Tamil Nadu at the time of his death.

William Auld is sometimes considered the poet laureate of Esperantujo.

Hanns Johst was poet leaureate of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945.

Some critics use the term poet laureate as an honorific for certain writers. Allen Ginsberg has been referred to as beat's poet laureate, and Patti Smith has been dubbed punk rock's poet laureate.

External links

• Poet Laureate of Canada
• Poet Laureate of the United Nations
• Poets Laureate of South Africa
• List of U.S. Poets Laureate
• Poet Laureate for San Francisco (official site, Library of Congress)

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