Pope Alexander III

For more information on Alexander III, visit Britannica.com.

Considered one of the great medieval popes, Alexander III (c. 1100 - 1181) held the pontificate from September 7, 1159, until his death in 1181. He is remembered for instituting the two-thirds majority rule for papal elections, championing the universities, and endorsing ecclesiastical independence. A man of courage and conviction, Alexander, often forced to reign in exile, stood up to the emperor Frederick I and his antipopes. It was during Alexander's papacy that St. Thomas Becket was martyred.

Alexander III was born as Orlando (also known as Roland, Rolandus, and Laurentius) Bandinelli around 1100 to a respected Tuscan family with political roots. He became a celebrated professor of Holy Scripture at the University of Bologna, where most likely he had studied under Gratian, the "father of the science of canon law." Through Gratian's scholarship, the study of church law first became a discipline quite apart from theology; his Concordantia discordantium canonum became the basic text on canon law.

Prudent, Merciful, Chaste

The Summa Magistri Rolandi, a commentary on Gratian's treatise, is thought to have enhanced Alexander's reputation among the curia, though some scholars contest the attribution. Canon regular at Pisa from 1142 to 1147, Alexander was summoned to Rome in 1148 by Pope Eugenius III, who named him cardinal deacon in 1150, then cardinal priest of St. Mark's in 1151. It is possible that during this period Alexander completed a manuscript, Sententie Rodlandi Bononiensis magistri, based on the work of French canon and scholastic philosopher Abelard. In 1153 Alexander became vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church. In 1153, he was appointed chancellor, a position in the curia responsible for diplomatic relations. He would hold the post through the pontificates of Eugenius III (1145 - 1153), Anastasius IV (1154), and Adrian IV (1154 - 1159), remaining a trusted advisor to Adrian throughout his reign.

Alexander's contemporary and biographer, Boso, characterized his subject as "a man of letters, fluent with polished eloquence, a prudent, kind, patient, merciful, gentle, sober, chaste man." These traits helped ensure his success in Rome. Adrian frequently chose Alexander to lead negotiations on numerous missions between the papacy and secular monarchies in an ongoing battle to wrest power from one another. Alexander's unwavering anti-imperialist stance during these early conventions would have far-reaching effects on his own papacy.

Frederick and the Antipopes

In 1152, Pope Adrian IV crowned Frederick I of Germany Holy Roman Emperor. It was an alliance formed for the mutual support and protection of the Church and the sovereign king against their enemies, especially the Normans. But within two years, the pope had befriended the Normans and no longer needed the protection of Frederick. The pope's relationship with the emperor gradually deteriorated until finally, at the Diet of Besançon in 1157, as the pope's representative Alexander challenged Frederick I's supremacy.

The convention had been called by Frederick to hear complaints from the papal legation on his treatment of Archbishop of Scandinavia, an outspoken anti-imperialist whom he had arrested. The historical fracas ensued over the papal legate's use of the Latin word beneficium, which could connote either personal benefit or feudal concession. Frederick insisted that his authority was God-given, not something conferred on him by the pope. But Alexander remained firm among the cardinals in opposing the supremacy of Frederick I.

With an eye to influencing the succeeding pope, Frederick plotted to undermine the cardinals who opposed him. He sent two anti-papist emissaries to Rome: Otto, Count of Wittelsbach, and archbishop-elect of Cologne, Rainald von Dassel, whose appointment was never confirmed by the Holy See. The emissaries' work became evident when it came time for the twenty-two cardinals to elect the pope's successor: Alexander, though favored by a majority after three days of deliberations, was opposed by three imperialist cardinals, who voted for Victor IV. The conclave, or gathering of cardinals for the express purpose of choosing a pope, was disbursed by a horde sympathetic to the antipope Victor IV, and Alexander fled south, where he was consecrated pope at the monastery of Farfa.

Frederick believed, as protector of Christendom, that it was his duty to solve the controversy among the cardinals over the papal election. But Alexander refused to cede such authority over to the earthly jurisdiction of the emperor. After refusing to acknowledge Alexander III as true pope, Frederick was excommunicated in 1160. The schism this created would last for seventeen years, with Frederick installing succeeding antipopes Paschal III (1164 - 1168) and Calixtus III (1168 - 1178) in Rome. With Alexander in exile in France from 1162 to 1165, and in Gaeta, Benevento, Anagni, and Venice in 1167, he became the West's symbol of resistance to German domination. Frederick, meanwhile, busy defending his sovereignty, fell to the Lombard League, an alliance of the northern cities of Verona, Vicenza, and Padua, along with Venice, Constantinople, and Sicily. In 1176, after numerous attempts to overthrow the League and the pope, and after seeing his army destroyed in Rome by a fatal fever, Frederick surrendered at the battle of Legnano. At the treaty of Venice the following year, Frederick submitted and recognized Alexander as pope.

Trouble in Canterbury

While in exile in France, Alexander met Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket had been chancellor to Henry II of England, and when appointed archbishop he was hesitant to accept the position, fearing his duties as archbishop would require him to take positions unfavorable to the king. This indeed was the case, especially on issues that pitted church and crown against one another. In 1164, Becket was forced to flee England.

Alexander III, having received support from England, was hesitant to criticize Henry II, even as the king tried to shape the relationship between the church and state in such a way that the state would have precedence in certain legal issues and could weigh in on matters of excommunication. Alexander, still the quintessential diplomat, advised Becket in 1165 that he should "not act hastily or rashly" and that he ought to attempt to "regain the favor and goodwill of the illustrious English king." Scholars have both scrutinized and censured Alexander for his failure to defend Becket against Henry. Many believe the conflict did not have much resonance for the pope at the time, while others suggest that twelfth-century canon law did not support Becket's legal arguments. Still other scholars marvel at Alexander's diplomatic skills, adding that his vast experience with secular leaders told him persuasion generally yielded better results than confrontation.

In 1170, after an escalation in the conflicts between the archbishop and Henry II, the archbishop was murdered at the altar of his cathedral by four knights. Alexander canonized the saint two years later, and in 1174 humbled the British king by receiving his penance and securing from Henry II all the rights for which Becket had fought.

A Serene Sun

In an effort to repair the schism that tore at the church with Frederick's appointment of the antipopes, Alexander convoked the Third Lateran Council in 1179. Before hundreds of bishops and abbots, twenty-one cardinals, and laymen from all corners of the Earth, the pope issued a number of regulations that sealed his reputation as a gifted ecclesiastical legislator. The bishop of Assisi opened the council by praising the pontiff, declaring, "The great pontiff - who recently rose from the ocean of raging waves of persecution like a serene sun - illuminates not only the present church but the entire world with his worthy brilliance of shining splendor."

Among the pope's decrees at the council was the institution of the two-thirds majority rule for papal elections, a law extant today. Other improvements to the church included establishing procedures for canonizing saints to avoid numerous abuses of canonization, setting minimum age limits for bishops, and recommending they stress simplicity in their lifestyles and refrain from hunting.

Even Alexander's enemies recognized his intellectual and moral virtues. His legacy as an adherent of the movement to build and support universities, which became the great centers of learning in the Middle Ages, and as a champion of ecclesiastical independence are among his most outstanding accomplishments. His epitaph referred to him as "the Light of the Clergy, the Ornament of the Church, the Father of his City and of the World." Voltaire, the eighteenth-century French writer and opponent of organized religion, commemorated the pontiff by writing, "If men have regained their rights, it is chiefly to Pope Alexander III that they are indebted for it; it is to him that so many cities owe their splendor." Upon the death of Alexander III in 1181, Lucius III succeeded to the papacy.

Books

Columbia Encyclopedia, 2001.

Encyclopedia Britannica, 1965.

Online

Camelot Village, www.camelotintl.com/ (October 26, 2002).

Catholic Encyclopedia,www.newadvent.org/ (October 25, 2002; October 26, 2002).

Catholic University of America, http://faculty.cua.edu/ (October 25, 2002).

Christians Unite, http://bible.christiansunite.com/ (October 27, 2002).

Papal Library, www.saint-mike.org/ (October 25, 2002).

Patron Saint Index, www.catholic-forum.com/ (October 25, 2002).

Who's Who in Medieval History,http://historymedren.about.com/ (October 26, 2002).

Alexander III
Papacy began	September 7, 1159
Papacy ended	August 30, 1181
Predecessor	Adrian IV
Successor	Lucius III
Personal details
Birth name	Rolando or Orlando
Born	c. 1100/1105 Siena, Italy, Holy Roman Empire
Died	August 30, 1181 Civita Castellana, Papal States, Holy Roman Empire
Other Popes named Alexander

Pope Alexander III (c. 1100/1105 – August 30, 1181), born Rolando (or Orlando) of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.

Contents 1 Church career 2 Political aspects 3 In popular culture 4 References 5 Notes

Church career

He was born in Siena. From 14th century he is referred to as a member of the aristocratic family of Bandinelli but this is not proven.^[1] For a long time, scholars believed him to be identical with the twelfth-century canon lawyer and theologian, Master Roland of Bologna, who composed the "Stroma" or "Summa Rolandi" – one of the earliest commentaries on the Decretum of Gratian – and the "Sententiae Rolandi", a sentence collection displaying the influence of Pierre Abélard. ^[2]

In October 1150, Pope Eugene III (1145–1153) created him cardinal deacon of the Title of Santi Cosma e Damiano; later he became cardinal priest of the Title of St Mark. In 1153, he became papal chancellor, and was the leader of the cardinals opposed to Frederick I Barbarossa (1152–1190). He negotiated the Treaty of Benevento, restoring peaceful relations between Rome and the Kingdom of Sicily.

On September 7, 1159, he was chosen the successor of Pope Adrian IV (1154–1159), a minority of the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal priest Octavian, who assumed the name of Victor IV (1159–1164). This antipope, and his successors antipope Paschal III (1164–68) and antipope Calixtus III (1168–1178), had the imperial support; but after the defeat of Legnano (1176), Barbarossa finally (in the Peace of Venice 1177) recognized Alexander III as pope. On March 12, 1178, Alexander III returned to Rome, which he had been compelled to leave twice: the first time from 1162, when he was sent into a Campanian exile by Oddone Frangipane following his brief arrest and detainment, until November 23, 1165; and again in 1167. The first period he spent in France, the latter chiefly in Gaeta, Benevento, Anagni, and Venice.

Political aspects

Frederick Barbarossa submits to the authority of Pope Alexander III (fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, by Spinello Aretino).

Alexander III was the first pope known to have to paid direct attention to missionary activities east of the Baltic Sea. In 1165, his close friend, Eskil, the Archbishop of Lund, appointed a Benedictine monk Fulco as a bishop in Estonia. In 1171, he became the first pope to address the situation of the Church in Finland, with Finns harassing the priests and only relying on God at the time of war.^[3]

In March 1179, Alexander III held the Third Council of the Lateran, a brilliant assemblage, reckoned by the Roman Church as the eleventh ecumenical council; its acts embody several of the Pope's proposals for the betterment of the condition of the Church, among them the law requiring that no one may be elected pope without the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals, a rule only slightly altered in 1996 which allowed a simple majority vote after thirty indecisive ballots. This synod marks the summit of Alexander III's power.

Besides checkmating Barbarossa, he had humbled Henry II of England concerning the murder of Thomas Becket in 1170, to whom he was unusually close. In 1172 he confirmed the position of Henry as Lord of Ireland. He had confirmed the right of Afonso I of Portugal to the crown, and even as a fugitive had enjoyed the favour and protection of Louis VII of France. Nevertheless, soon after the close of the synod the Roman republic forced Alexander III to leave the city, which he never re-entered; and on September 29, 1179, some nobles set up the antipope Innocent III (1179–1180). By the judicious use of money, however, Alexander III got him into his power, so that he was deposed in January, 1180. In 1181, Alexander III excommunicated William I of Scotland and put the kingdom under an interdict.

He died at Civita Castellana on August 30, 1181.

In popular culture

On screen, Alexander was portrayed by the Italian actor Paolo Stoppa in the film Becket (1964).

Alexander III is mentioned in Umberto Eco's book 'Baudolino'.

References

• "Pope Alexander III" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
• Myriam Soria Audebert, "Pontifical Propaganda during the Schisms: Alexander III to the reconquest of Church Unity," in Convaincre et persuader: Communication et propagande aux XII et XIIIe siècles. Ed. par Martin Aurell. Poitiers: Université de Poitiers-centre d'études supérieures de civilisation médiévale, 2007,

Notes

1. ^ W. Maleczek, Papst und Kardinalskolleg von 1191 bis 1216, Wien 1984, p. 233 note 168
2. ^ See John T. Noonan, “Who was Rolandus?” in Law, Church, and Society: Essays in Honor of Stephan Kuttner, ed. Kenneth Pennington and Robert Somerville [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1977], pp. 21–48; Rudolph Weigand, “Magister Rolandus und Papst Alexander III,” Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht 149 [1980]: 3–44; reprinted in idem, Glossatoren des Dekrets Gratians [Goldbach: Keip, 1997], pp. 73*–114*.
3. ^ Letter by Pope Alexander III to the Archbishop of Uppsala. In Latin. Hosted by the National Archive of Finland. See [1] and Diplomatarium Fennicum from the menu.

Catholic Church titles
Preceded by Adrian IV	Pope 1159–81	Succeeded by Lucius III

v • d • e Popes of the Catholic Church 1st–4th centuries Peter · Linus · Anacletus · Clement I · Evaristus · Alexander I · Sixtus I · Telesphorus · Hyginus · Pius I · Anicetus · Soter · Eleuterus · Victor I · Zephyrinus · Callixtus I · Urban I · Pontian · Anterus · Fabian · Cornelius · Lucius I · Stephen I · Sixtus II · Dionysius · Felix I · Eutychian · Caius · Marcellinus · Marcellus I · Eusebius · Miltiades · Sylvester I · Mark · Julius I · Liberius · Damasus I · Siricius · Anastasius I 5th–8th centuries Innocent I · Zosimus · Boniface I · Celestine I · Sixtus III · Leo I · Hilarius · Simplicius · Felix III · Gelasius I · Anastasius II · Symmachus · Hormisdas · John I · Felix IV · Boniface II · John II · Agapetus I · Silverius · Vigilius · Pelagius I · John III · Benedict I · Pelagius II · Gregory I · Sabinian · Boniface III · Boniface IV · Adeodatus I · Boniface V · Honorius I · Severinus · John IV · Theodore I · Martin I · Eugene I · Vitalian · Adeodatus II · Donus · Agatho · Leo II · Benedict II · John V · Conon · Sergius I · John VI · John VII · Sisinnius · Constantine · Gregory II · Gregory III · Zachary · Stephen II · Paul I · Stephen III · Adrian I · Leo III 9th–12th centuries Stephen IV · Paschal I · Eugene II · Valentine · Gregory IV · Sergius II · Leo IV · Benedict III · Nicholas I · Adrian II · John VIII · Marinus I · Adrian III · Stephen V · Formosus · Boniface VI · Stephen VI · Romanus · Theodore II · John IX · Benedict IV · Leo V · Sergius III · Anastasius III · Lando · John X · Leo VI · Stephen VII · John XI · Leo VII · Stephen VIII · Marinus II · Agapetus II · John XII · Benedict V · Leo VIII · John XIII · Benedict VI · Benedict VII · John XIV · John XV · Gregory V · Sylvester II · John XVII · John XVIII · Sergius IV · Benedict VIII · John XIX · Benedict IX · Sylvester III · Gregory VI · Clement II · Damasus II · Leo IX · Victor II · Stephen IX · Nicholas II · Alexander II · Gregory VII · Victor III · Urban II · Paschal II · Gelasius II · Callixtus II · Honorius II · Innocent II · Celestine II · Lucius II · Eugene III · Anastasius IV · Adrian IV · Alexander III · Lucius III · Urban III · Gregory VIII · Clement III · Celestine III · Innocent III 13th–16th centuries Honorius III · Gregory IX · Celestine IV · Innocent IV · Alexander IV · Urban IV · Clement IV · Gregory X · Innocent V · Adrian V · John XXI · Nicholas III · Martin IV · Honorius IV · Nicholas IV · Celestine V · Boniface VIII · Benedict XI · Clement V · John XXII · Benedict XII · Clement VI · Innocent VI · Urban V · Gregory XI · Urban VI · Boniface IX · Innocent VII · Gregory XII · Martin V · Eugene IV · Nicholas V · Callixtus III · Pius II · Paul II · Sixtus IV · Innocent VIII · Alexander VI · Pius III · Julius II · Leo X · Adrian VI · Clement VII · Paul III · Julius III · Marcellus II · Paul IV · Pius IV · Pius V · Gregory XIII · Sixtus V · Urban VII · Gregory XIV · Innocent IX · Clement VIII 17th–20th centuries Leo XI · Paul V · Gregory XV · Urban VIII · Innocent X · Alexander VII · Clement IX · Clement X · Innocent XI · Alexander VIII · Innocent XII · Clement XI · Innocent XIII · Benedict XIII · Clement XII · Benedict XIV · Clement XIII · Clement XIV · Pius VI · Pius VII · Leo XII · Pius VIII · Gregory XVI · Pius IX · Leo XIII · Pius X · Benedict XV · Pius XI · Pius XII · John XXIII · Paul VI · John Paul I · John Paul II 21st century Benedict XVI Pope Portal · Catholicism Portal · List of popes

v • d • e Catholic Church Organizations, Papacy, Teachings and Liturgical Traditions History Jesus · Twelve Apostles · Early Christianity · History of the Papacy · Councils · Crusades · Missions · Great Schism of East · Great Schism of West · Reformation · Counter-Reformation · Roman Catholicism by country Hierarchy Pope · Cardinals · Patriarchs · Major Archbishops · Primates · Metropolitans · Archbishops · Diocesan Bishops Theology Trinity · Original sin · One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church · Worship · Divine Grace · Salvation · Sermon on the Mount · The Ten Commandments · Dogma · Body and Soul Sacraments Baptism · Confirmation · Eucharist · Penance · Anointing of the Sick · Holy Orders · Matrimony Mariology Mariology · Veneration · History of Mariology · Mariology of the saints · Mariology of the popes · Marian Doctrines · Mother of God · Perpetual Virginity · Immaculate Conception  · Assumption Doctors of the Church Albertus Magnus · Ambrose · Anselm of Canterbury · Anthony of Padua · Thomas Aquinas · Athanasius of Alexandria · Augustine of Hippo · Basil of Caesarea · Bede · Robert Bellarmine · Bernard of Clairvaux · Bonaventure · Petrus Canisius · Catherine of Siena · Peter Chrysologus · John Chrysostom · Cyril of Alexandria · Cyril of Jerusalem · Peter Damian · Ephrem the Syrian · Francis de Sales · Gregory the Great · Gregory of Nazianzus · Hilary of Poitiers · Isidore of Seville · Jerome · John of Damascus · John of the Cross · Lawrence of Brindisi · Leo the Great · Alphonsus Liguori · Thérèse de Lisieux · Teresa of Ávila Pope Benedict XVI Conclave · Theology · Works · Deus Caritas Est · Sacramentum Caritatis · Summorum Pontificum · Spe Salvi · Caritas in Veritate Preceding Popes Pope John Paul II · Pope Paul VI · Pope John XXIII · Pope Pius XII · Pope Pius XI · Pope Benedict XV · Pope Pius X · Pope Leo XIII · Pope Pius IX Orders & Societies Assumptionist · Augustinian Order · Benedictines · Capuchin Order · Carmelites · Carthusians · Congregations of Holy Cross · Dominican Order · Franciscan orders · Jesuits · Oratory of Saint Philip Neri Vatican II Definition of the Church · Gaudium et Spes · Lumen Gentium · Nostra Aetate Particular Churches sorted by Liturgical Traditions Alexandrian · Coptic · Ethiopic · Antiochian · Maronite · Syriac · Syro-Malankara · Armenian · Armenian · Byzantine · Albanian · Belarusian · Bulgarian · Croatian · Greek · Hungarian · Italo-Greek · Macedonian · Melkite · Romanian · Russian · Ruthenian · Slovak · Ukrainian · East Syrian · Chaldean · Syro-Malabar · Roman · Ambrosian · Sarum · Mozarabic · Anglican Use · Latin · Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter Pope Portal Catholicism Portal

v • d • e History of the Catholic Church General History of the Catholic Church · History of the Papacy · History of the Roman Curia · Ecumenical Councils · Timeline of the Catholic Church · History of Christianity · Role of the Catholic Church in civilization · Art in Roman Catholicism · Roman Catholic religious order · Christian monasticism · Papal States Church beginnings Jesus · Twelve Apostles · Saint Peter · Paul the Apostle · Saint Stephen · John the Apostle Council of Jerusalem · Apostolic Fathers · Ignatius of Antioch · Irenaeus · Pope Victor I · Tertullian Constantine to Pope Gregory I Constantine I and Christianity · Arianism · Basilica of St. John Lateran · First Council of Nicaea · Pope Sylvester I · First Council of Constantinople · Canon · Jerome · Vulgate · Council of Ephesus · Council of Chalcedon · Benedict of Nursia · Second Council of Constantinople · Pope Gregory I · Gregorian Chant Early Middle Ages Third Council of Constantinople · Saint Boniface · Byzantine Iconoclasm · Second Council of Nicaea · Charlemagne · Pope Leo III · Fourth Council of Constantinople · East-West Schism High Middle Ages Pope Urban II · Investiture Controversy · Crusades · First Council of the Lateran · Second Council of the Lateran · Third Council of the Lateran · Pope Innocent III · Latin Empire of Constantinople · Saint Francis of Assisi · Fourth Council of the Lateran · Inquisition · First Council of Lyon · Second Council of Lyon · Bernard of Clairvaux · Thomas Aquinas Late Middle Ages Pope Boniface VIII · Avignon Papacy · Pope Clement V · Council of Vienne · Knights Templar · Catherine of Siena · Pope Alexander VI Protestant Reformation & Counter-Reformation Protestant Reformation · Counter-Reformation · Thomas More · Pope Leo X · Society of Jesus · Francis Xavier · Dissolution of the Monasteries · Council of Trent · Pope Pius V · Tridentine Mass · Robert Bellarmine Baroque Period to French Revolution Pope Innocent XI · Pope Benedict XIV · Suppression of the Society of Jesus · Anti-clericalism · Pope Pius VI · Shimabara Rebellion · Edict of Nantes · Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution 19th century Pope Pius VII · Pope Pius IX · Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary · Our Lady of La Salette · Our Lady of Lourdes · First Vatican Council · Papal infallibility · Pope Leo XIII · Mary of the Divine Heart · World Consecration to the Sacred Heart of Jesus · Rerum Novarum 20th century Pope Pius X · Our Lady of Fátima · Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII · Pope Pius XII · Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary · Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary · Pope John XXIII · Second Vatican Council · Pope Paul VI · Pope John Paul I · Pope John Paul II 21st century Pope Benedict XVI · World Youth Day 2008 By country France  · Germany  · Ireland  · Mexico  · Spain  · United States Pope Portal Catholicism Portal

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)