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Prostatitis

Definition

Prostatitis is an inflammation of the prostate gland, a common condition in adult males. Often caused by infection, prostatitis may develop rapidly (acute) or slowly (chronic).

Description

Prostatitis may be the symptom-producing disease of the genitourinary tract for which men most often seek medical help. About 40% of visits to a specialist in genitourinary problems (urologist) are for prostatitis. Forms of prostate inflammation include acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis and inflammation not caused by bacterial infection. A painful condition called prostatodynia, which may be caused by abnormal nerves or muscles in the region, is also thought to be a form of prostatitis. The chronic bacterial form is sometimes experienced by men whose sex partners have a bacterial infection of the vagina, making this a sexually transmitted disease. Other cases occur when small stones form within the prostate and become infected. Sometimes infection is caused by poor hygiene, surgical procedures, or even swimming in polluted water.

The sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea may sometimes cause prostatitis, and tuberculosis may spread to the prostate. Parasites and fungi may infect the prostate gland. Some men whose prostatitis is not caused by any microorganism have microscopic collections of cells called granulomas in their prostate tissue. Whether viruses also may cause prostatitis is debatable.

— David A. Cramer, MD


 
 
Dictionary: pros·ta·ti·tis  (prŏs'tə-tī'tĭs) pronunciation
n.

Inflammation of the prostate gland.


 
Dental Dictionary: prostatitis

n

Acute or chronic inflammation of the prostate gland, usually the result of infection.

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: prostatitis
(prŏs'tətī'tĭs) , inflammation of the prostate gland. Acute prostatitis is usually a result of infection in the urinary tract or infection carried by the blood; in many cases the infection spreads from the urethra and is contracted through sexual transmission. Symptoms include fever, low back pain, and difficulty or pain in urination; the gland is tender and swollen. Infection, caused by a variety of pathogenic bacteria and certain protozoans, is treated by an appropriate antibiotic. Healing is usually complete, but the condition may become chronic if the infecting organism persists.

 
Veterinary Dictionary: prostatitis

Inflammation of the prostate. Occurs mostly in dogs where it may be acute, causing fever, leukocytosis, pain and gait abnormalities, or chronic with dysuria, hematuria and constipation.

 
Wikipedia: prostatitis
Prostatitis
Classification & external resources
Prostatelead.jpg
ICD-10 N41.
ICD-9 601
DiseasesDB 10801
MedlinePlus 000524
eMedicine emerg/488  prostatis
med/2845 acute bacterial
med/1920 bacterial
med/3571 chronic bacterial
med/3405 non bacterial
med/1922 CPPS
MeSH D011472

Prostatitis is an inflammation of the prostate. Because women do not have a prostate gland, it is a condition found only in men, although women do have microscopic paraurethral Skene's glands connected to the distal third of the urethra in the prevaginal space that are homologous to the prostate, and may cause symptoms.[1]

A prostatitis diagnosis is assigned at 8% of all urologist and 1% of all primary care physician visits in the United States.[2]

Nomenclature

The term prostatitis refers in its strictest sense to histological (microscopic) inflammation of the tissue of the prostate gland, although historically the term has loosely been used as a rubric to describe a set of quite different conditions. To try to remedy this, the NIH devised a new classification system in 1999.

Classification

According to the 1999 National Institute of Health (NIH) Classification, there are four categories of prostatitis:

Subdivisions of IIIa (inflammatory) and IIIb (non-inflammatory) exist based on levels of pus cells in expressed prostatic secretions, but these subcategories are of limited use clinically

Category I: Acute prostatitis (bacterial)

Signs and symptoms

Men with this disease often have chills, fever, pain in the lower back and genital area, urinary frequency and urgency often at night, burning or painful urination, body aches, and a demonstrable infection of the urinary tract, as evidenced by white blood cells and bacteria in the urine. There may be discharge from the penis.

Diagnosis

Acute prostatitis is relatively easy to diagnose due to its symptoms that suggest infection. Common bacteria are Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Serratia, and Staphylococcus aureus. This can be a medical emergency in some patients and hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics may be required. A full blood count reveals increased white blood cells. Sepsis from prostatitis is very rare, but may occur in immunocompromised patients; high fever and malaise generally prompt blood cultures, which are often positive in sepsis. A prostate massage should never be done in a patient with suspected acute prostatitis, since it may induce sepsis. Since bacteria causing the prostatitis is easily recoverable from the urine, prostate massage is not required to make the diagnosis.

Treatment

Antibiotics are the first line of treatment in acute prostatitis (Cat. I). Antibiotics usually resolve acute prostatitis infections in a very short time. Appropriate antibiotics should be used, based on the microbe causing the infection. Some antibiotics have very poor penetration of the prostatic capsule, others, such as Ciprofloxacin, Co-trimoxazole and tetracyclines penetrate well. In acute prostatitis, penetration of the prostate is not as important as for category II because the intense inflammation disrupts the prostate-blood barrier. It is more important to choose a bacteriocidal antibiotic (kills bacteria, eg quinolone) rather than a bacteriostatic antibiotic (slows bacterial growth, eg. tetracycline) for acute potentially life threatening infections.[3] Severely ill patients may need hospitalization, while nontoxic patients can be treated at home with bed rest, analgesics, stool softeners, and hydration. Patients in urinary retention are best managed with a suprapubic catheter or intermittent catheterization. Lack of clinical response to antibiotics should raise the suspicion of an abscess and prompt an imaging study such as a transrectal ultrasound (TRUS).[4]

Prognosis

Full recovery without sequelae is usual.

Category II: Chronic bacterial prostatitis

Signs and symptoms

Chronic bacterial prostatitis is a relatively rare condition (<5% of patients with prostate-related non-BPH LUTS) that usually presents with an intermittent UTI-type picture and that is defined as recurrent urinary tract infections in men originating from a chronic infection in the prostate. Dr. Weidner, Professor of Medicine, Department of Urology, University of Giessen, has stated: "In studies of 656 men, we seldom found chronic bacterial prostatitis. It is truly a rare disease. Most of those were E-coli."[5] Symptoms may be completely absent until there is also bladder infection, and the most troublesome problem is usually recurrent cystitis.[6]

Diagnosis

In chronic bacterial prostatitis there are bacteria in the prostate but usually no symptoms. The prostate infection is diagnosed by culturing urine as well as prostate fluid (expressed prostatic secretions or EPS) which are obtained by the doctor doing a rectal exam and putting pressure on the prostate. If no fluid is recovered after this prostatic massage, a post massage urine should also contain any prostatic bacteria. Prostate specific antigen levels may be elevated, although there is no malignancy.

Treatment

Treatment requires prolonged courses (4-8 weeks) of antibiotics that penetrate the prostate well (β-lactams and nitrofurantoin are ineffective). These include quinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin), sulfas (Bactrim, Septra) and macrolides (erythromycin, clarithromycin). Persistent infections may be helped in 80% of patients by the use of alpha blockers (tamsulosin (Flomax), alfuzosin), or long term low dose antibiotic therapy.[7] Recurrent infections may be caused by inefficient urination (benign prostatic hypertrophy, neurogenic bladder), prostatic stones or a structural abnormality that acts as a reservoir for infection.

The addition of prostate massage to courses of antibiotics was previously proposed as being beneficial.[8][9] It is though not without some risk,[10][11] and, in more recent trials, was not shown to improve outcome compared to antibiotics alone.[12]

Prognosis

Over time, the relapse rate is high, exceeding 50%. A 2007 study showed that repeated courses of combination antibiotics may eradicate infection in 83.9% of patents with clinical remission extending throughout a follow-up period of 30 months for 94% of these patients.[13]

Category III: CP/CPPS

Signs and symptoms

In chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) there is pelvic pain of unknown cause, lasting longer than 3 months,[14] as the key symptom. Symptoms may wax and wane. Pain can range from mild discomfort to debilitating. Pain may radiate to back and rectum, making sitting difficult. Dysuria, arthralgia, myalgia, unexplained fatigue, abdominal pain, constant burning pain in the penis, and frequency may all be present. Frequent urination and increased urgency may suggest interstitial cystitis (inflammation centred in bladder rather than prostate). Ejaculation may be painful, as the prostate contracts during emission of semen, although nerve- and muscle-mediated post-ejaculatory pain is more common, and a classic sign of CP/CPPS. Some patients report low libido, sexual dysfunction and erectile difficulties. Pain after ejaculation is a very specific complaint that distinguishes CP/CPPS from men with BPH or normal men.

Theories of etiology

Theories behind the disease include autoimmunity, for which there is scant evidence, neurogenic inflammation and myofascial pain syndrome. In the latter two categories, dysregulation of the local nervous system due to past trauma, infection or an anxious disposition and chronic albeit unconscious pelvic tensing lead to inflammation that is mediated by substances released by nerve cells (such as substance P). The prostate (and other areas of the genitourinary tract: bladder, urethra, testicles) can become inflamed by the action of the chronically activated pelvic nerves on the mast cells at the end of the nerve pathways. Similar stress-induced genitourinary inflammation has been shown experimentally in other mammals.[15] However, there is no correlation between inflammation on histological examination of the prostate and the National Institutes of Health Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index.[16]

The bacterial infection theory that for so long had held sway in this field was shown to be unimportant in a 2003 study from the University of Washington team led by Dr Lee and Professor Richard Berger. The study found that one third of both normal men and patients had equal counts of similar bacteria colonizing their prostates.[17] This view was endorsed by Dr Anthony Schaeffer, Professor and Chairman of the Department of Urology at Northwestern University, in a 2003 editorial of The Journal of Urology, in which he stated that "...these data suggest that bacteria do not have a significant role in the development of the chronic pelvic pain syndrome",[18] and a year later with his colleagues he published studies showing that antibiotics are essentially useless for CP/CPPS.[19][20] Since the publication of these studies, the focus has shifted from infection to neuromuscular and psychological etiologies for chronic prostatitis (CP/CPPS); a 2005 study showed that stress is correlated to Cat III prostatitis.[21]

Additional theories and observations include:

Possible role of unculturable bacteria in CPPS

A 2007 Croatian study, without controls, suggested that "prostatitis syndrome"[sic] patients may be infected with a wide variety of microbes. The study used McCoy culture and Lugol stain or by immunofluorescent typing with monoclonal antibodies to come to these findings.[22] If this study refers to men with Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome, it is not in line with major studies from other centres.[17][23]

CPPS as a form of interstitial cystitis

Some researchers have suggested that CPPS is a form of interstitial cystitis. A large multicenter prospective randomized controlled study showed that Elmiron was slightly better than placebo in treating the symptoms of CPPS, however the primary endpoint did not reach statistical significance.[24] Other therapies shown more effective than Elmiron in treating interstitial cystitis, such as quercetin and Elavil (amitriptyline), can help with chronic prostatitis.

Effect of cold exposure

Studies in 2007 showed that CPPS is associated with cold weather and exposure to cold.[25][26]

Diagnosis

There are no definitive diagnostic tests for CP/CPPS. This is a poorly understood disorder, even though it accounts for 90%-95% of prostatitis diagnoses.[27] It is found in men of any age, with the peak onset in the early 30s. CP/CPPS may be inflammatory (category IIIa) or non-inflammatory (category IIIb). In the inflammatory form, urine, semen, and other fluids from the prostate contain pus cells (dead white blood cells or WBCs), whereas in the non-inflammatory form no pus cells are present. Recent studies have questioned the distinction between categories IIIa and IIIb, since both categories show evidence of inflammation if pus cells are ignored and other more subtle signs of inflammation, like cytokines, are measured. In 2006, Chinese researchers found that men with categories IIIa and IIIb both had significantly and similarly raised levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGFß1 and pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ in their expressed prostatic secretions when compared with controls; therefore measurement of these cytokines could be used to diagnose category III prostatitis.[28]

Normal men have slightly more bacteria in their semen than men with CPPS.[23] The traditional Stamey 4-glass test is invalid for diagnosis of this disorder, and inflammation cannot be localized to any particular area of the lower GU tract.[23]

Men with CP/CPPS are more likely than the general population to suffer from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS),[29] and Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS). Prostate specific antigen levels may be elevated, although there is no malignancy.

Experimental tests that could be useful in the future include tests to measure semen and prostate fluid cytokine levels. Various studies have shown increases in markers for inflammation such as elevated levels of cytokines, myeloperoxidase, and chemokines.

Treatment

A 2007 review article by Drs Potts and Payne in the Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine states:[30]

"Indeed, chronic abacterial prostatitis (also known as chronic pelvic pain syndrome) is both the most prevalent form and also the least understood and the most challenging to evaluate and treat. This form of prostatitis may respond to non-prostate-centered treatment strategies such as physical therapy, myofascial trigger point release, and relaxation techniques."

Physical and psychological therapy

For chronic nonbacterial prostatitis (Cat III), also known as CP/CPPS, which makes up the majority of men diagnosed with "prostatitis", a treatment called the Stanford Protocol,[31] developed by Stanford University Professor of Urology Rodney Anderson and psychologist David Wise in 1996, has recently been published. This is a combination of medication (using tricyclic antidepressants and benzodiazepines), psychological therapy (paradoxical relaxation, an advancement and adaptation, specifically for pelvic pain, of a type of progressive relaxation technique developed by Edmund Jacobson during the early 20th century), and physical therapy (trigger point release therapy on pelvic floor and abdominal muscles, and also yoga-type exercises with the aim of relaxing pelvic floor and abdominal muscles). [32] [33] While these studies are encouraging, definitive proof of efficacy would require a randomized, sham controlled, blinded study, which is not as easy to do with physical therapy as with drug therapy.

Cat. III prostatitis may have no initial trigger other than anxiety, often with an element of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder or other anxiety-spectrum problem. This is theorized to leave the pelvic area in a sensitized condition resulting in a loop of muscle tension and heightened neurological feedback (neural wind-up). Current protocols largely focus on stretches to release overtensed muscles in the pelvic or anal area (commonly referred to as trigger points), physical therapy to the area, and progressive relaxation therapy to reduce causative stress. Biofeedback physical therapy to relearn how to control pelvic floor muscles may be useful.[34]

Aerobic exercise can help those sufferers who are not also suffering from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) or whose symptoms are not exacerbated by exercise.[35]

Food allergies

Anecdotal evidence suggests that food allergies and intolerances may have a role in exacerbating CP/CPPS, perhaps through mast cell mediated mechanisms. Specifically patients with gluten intolerance or celiac disease report severe symptom flares after sustained gluten ingestion. Patients may therefore find an exclusion diet helpful in lessening symptoms by identifying problem foods. Studies are lacking in this area.

Pharmacological treatment

There is a substantial list of medications used to treat this disorder.[36]

  • Alpha blockers (tamsulosin, alfuzosin) are moderately helpful for many men with CPPS;[37] duration of therapy needs to be at least 3 months.[38]
  • Quercetin has shown effective in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in chronic prostatitis using 500 mg twice a day for 4 weeks.[39] Subsequent studies showed that quercetin, a mast cell inhibitor, reduces inflammation and oxidative stress in the prostate.
  • Pollen extract (Cernilton) has also been shown effective in randomized placebo controlled trials.[40][41][42]
  • Commonly used therapies that have not been properly evaluated in clinical trials are dietary modification, gabapentin, and amitriptyline.
  • Therapies shown to be ineffective by randomized placebo/sham controlled trials: levaquin (antibiotics), alpha blockers for 6 weeks or less, transurethral needle ablation of the prostate (TUNA).
  • At least one study suggests that multi-modal therapy (aimed at different pathways such as inflammation and neuromuscular dysfunction simultaneously) is better long term than monotherapy.[43]

Prognosis

In recent years the prognosis for CP/CPPS has improved greatly with the advent of multimodal treatment, phytotherapy and protocols aimed at quieting the pelvic nerves through myofascial trigger point release and anxiety control.

Category IV: Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis

Signs and symptoms

These patients have no history of genitourinary pain complaints, but leukocytosis or bacteria have been noted during evaluation for other conditions.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is through tests of semen, EPS or prostate tissue that reveal inflammation in the absence of symptoms.[44]

Treatment

No treatment required. It is standard practice for men with infertility and category IV prostatitis to be given a trial of antibiotics and/or anti-inflammatories however evidence for efficacy are weak.[45] Since signs of asymptomatic prostatic inflammation may sometimes be associated with prostate cancer, this can be addressed by tests that assess the ratio of free-to-total PSA. The results of these tests were significantly different in prostate cancer and category IV prostatitis in one study.[46]

References

  1. ^ R F Gittes and R M Nakamura (1996). "Female urethral syndrome. A female prostatitis?". West J Med. 164 (5). 
  2. ^ Collins MM et al (1998). "How common is prostatitis? A national survey of physician visits.". J Urol. 159 (4). 
  3. ^ Hua VN, Schaeffer AJ (2004). "Acute and chronic prostatitis". Med. Clin. North Am. 88 (2): 483-94. DOI:10.1016/S0025-7125(03)00169-X. PMID 15049589. 
  4. ^ Göğüş C, Ozden E, Karaboğa R, Yağci C (2004). "The value of transrectal ultrasound guided needle aspiration in treatment of prostatic abscess". European journal of radiology 52 (1): 94-8. DOI:10.1016/S0720-048X(03)00231-6. PMID 15380852. 
  5. ^ Schneider, H., Ludwig, M., Hossain, H. M., Diemer, T. & Weidner, W. (2003). "The 2001 Giessen Cohort Study on patients with prostatitis syndrome – an evaluation of inflammatory status and search for microorganisms 10 years after a first analysis". Andrologia 35 (5). 
  6. ^ Habermacher GM, Chason JT, Schaeffer AJ. (2006). "Prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome". Annu Rev Med. 57. 
  7. ^ Shoskes D, Hakim L, Ghoniem G, Jackson C (2003). "Long-term results of multimodal therapy for chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome". J Urol 169 (4): 1406-10. PMID 12629373. 
  8. ^ Nickel J, Downey J, Feliciano A, Hennenfent B (1999). "Repetitive prostatic massage therapy for chronic refractory prostatitis: the Philippine experience". Tech Urol 5 (3): 146-51. PMID 10527258. 
  9. ^ (1999) "Use of prostatic massage in combination with antibiotics in the treatment of chronic prostatitis". Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2 (3): 159-162. PMID 12496826. 
  10. ^ Buse S, Warzinek T, Hobi C, Ackerman D. (2003). "Prostate massage with unwanted consequences. Case report". Urologe A. 42 (1). 
  11. ^ Sengoku A, Yamashita M, Umezu K (1990). "[A case of Fournier's gangrene: was it triggered by prostatic massage?]". Hinyokika Kiyo 36 (9): 1097-100. PMID 2239620. 
  12. ^ Ateya A, Fayez A, Hani R, Zohdy W, Gabbar M, Shamloul R (2006). "Evaluation of prostatic massage in treatment of chronic prostatitis". Urology 67 (4): 674-8. PMID 16566972. 
  13. ^ Magri V et al (2007 May). "&dopt=citation Efficacy of repeated cycles of combination therapy for the eradication of infecting organisms in chronic bacterial prostatitis.". Int J Antimicrob Agents 29 (5). 
  14. ^ Luzzi, GA. (2002). "Chronic prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain in men: aetiology, diagnosis and management.". J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 16 (3). 
  15. ^ Alexacos N, Pang X, Boucher W, Cochrane DE, Sant GR, Theoharides TC (1999). "Neurotensin mediates rat bladder mast cell degranulation triggered by acute psychological stress". Urology 53 (5): 1035–40. PMID 10223502. 
  16. ^ Nickel JC, Roehrborn CG, O'leary MP, Bostwick DG, Somerville MC, Rittmaster RS (2007). "Examination of the relationship between symptoms of prostatitis and histological inflammation: baseline data from the REDUCE chemoprevention trial". J. Urol. 178 (3 Pt 1): 896–900; discussion 900–1. DOI:10.1016/j.juro.2007.05.041. PMID 17632164. 
  17. ^ a b Lee JC, Muller CH, Rothman I, et al (2003). "Prostate biopsy culture findings of men with chronic pelvic pain syndrome do not differ from those of healthy controls". J. Urol. 169 (2): 584–7; discussion 587–8. DOI:10.1097/01.ju.0000045673.02542.7a. PMID 12544312. 
  18. ^ Schaeffer AJ (2003). "Editorial: Emerging concepts in the management of prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome.". J Urol. 169 (2). PMID 12544315. 
  19. ^ Alexander RB, Propert KJ, Schaeffer AJ, et al (2004). "Ciprofloxacin or tamsulosin in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a randomized, double-blind trial". Ann. Intern. Med. 141 (8): 581–9. PMID 15492337. 
  20. ^ Nickel JC, Downey J, Clark J, et al (2003). "Levofloxacin for chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome in men: a randomized placebo-controlled multicenter trial". Urology 62 (4): 614–7. PMID 14550427. 
  21. ^ Ullrich PM, Turner JA, Ciol M, Berger R (2005). "Stress is associated with subsequent pain and disability among men with nonbacterial prostatitis/pelvic pain". Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine 30 (2): 112–8. DOI:10.1207/s15324796abm3002_3. PMID 16173907. 
  22. ^ Skerk V, Krhen I, Cajić V, Markovinović L, Puntarić A, Roglić S, Zekan S, Ljubin-Sternak S, Zidovec Lepej S, Vince A. (2007). "The Role of Chlamydia trachomatis in Prostatitis Syndrome - Our Experience in Diagnosis and Treatment.". Acta Dermatovenerol Croat. 3: 135-140;. PMID 17868538. 
  23. ^ a b c
  24. ^ Nickel JC, Forrest JB, Tomera K, et al (2005). "Pentosan polysulfate sodium therapy for men with chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a multicenter, randomized, placebo controlled study". J. Urol. 173 (4): 1252–5. DOI:10.1097/01.ju.0000159198.83103.01. PMID 15758763. 
  25. ^ Hedelin H, Jonsson K (2007). "Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: Symptoms are aggravated by cold and become less distressing with age and time": 1–5. DOI:10.1080/00365590701428517. PMID 17853027. 
  26. ^ Hedelin H, Jonsson K (2007). "Chronic abacterial prostatitis and cold exposure": 1–6. DOI:10.1080/00365590701365123. PMID 17853032. 
  27. ^ Habermacher GM, Chason JT, Schaeffer AJ. (2006). "Prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome.". Annu Rev Med. 57. 
  28. ^ Ding XG, Li SW, Zheng XM, Hu LQ. (2006). "[IFN-gamma and TGF-beta1, levels in the expressed prostatic secretions of patients with chronic abacterial prostatitis]". Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue. 12 (11). 
  29. ^ Leslie A Aaron et al (2001). "Comorbid Clinical Conditions in Chronic Fatigue, A Co-Twin Control Study". J Gen Intern Med. 16 (1). 
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  31. ^ The Stanford Protocol (html) (2005). Retrieved on 2006-12-09.
  32. ^ Trigger Points and Relaxation in the Treatment of Prostatitis J Urol. 2005 Jul;174(1):155-60 (Anderson RU, Wise D, Sawyer T, Chan C.)
  33. ^ Sexual Dysfunction in Men With Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome: Improvement After Trigger Point Release and Paradoxical Relaxation Training J Urol. 2006 Oct;176(4 Pt 1):1534-8; discussion 1538-9 (Anderson RU, Wise D, Sawyer T, Chan C.)
  34. ^ Cornel EB et al (2005). "The effect of biofeedback physical therapy in men with Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome Type III.". Eur Urol. 47 (5). 
  35. ^ Giubilei G, Mondaini N, Minervini A, Saieva C, Lapini A, Serni S, Bartoletti R, Carini M. (2007). "Physical Activity of Men With Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome Not Satisfied With Conventional Treatments-Could it Represent a Valid Option? The Physical Activity and Male Pelvic Pain Trial: A Double-Blind, Randomized Study.". J Urol. 177 (1). 
  36. ^ Pharmacological treatment options for prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (html) (2006). Retrieved on 2006-12-11.
  37. ^ "...tamsulosin did not substantially reduce symptoms in men with long-standing CP/CPPS who had at least moderate symptoms." Alexander RB, Propert KJ, Schaeffer AJ, Landis JR, Nickel JC, O'Leary MP, Pontari MA, McNaughton-Collins M, Shoskes DA, Comiter CV, Datta NS, Fowler JE Jr, Nadler RB, Zeitlin SI, Knauss JS, Wang Y, Kusek JW, Nyberg LM Jr, Litwin MS; Chronic Prostatitis Collaborative Research Network. (2004). "Ciprofloxacin or tamsulosin in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a randomized, double-blind trial.". Ann Intern Med. 141 (8). 
  38. ^ "...treatment duration should be long enough (more than 3 months)"Yang G et al (2006). "The effect of alpha-adrenergic antagonists in chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.". J Androl. 27 (6). 
  39. ^ Shoskes, DA et al (1999). "Quercetin in men with category III chronic prostatitis: a preliminary prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.". Urology. 54 (6). 
  40. ^ Suzuki T, et al (1992). "[Clinical effect of Cernilton in chronic prostatitis]". Hinyokika Kiyo. 38 (4). 
  41. ^ Yan, H et al (2004). "[Efficacy of Prostat in the treatment of NIH category IIIA prostatitis]". Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue. 10 (12). 
  42. ^ Elist J (2006). "Effects of pollen extract preparation Prostat/Poltit on lower urinary tract symptoms in patients with chronic nonbacterial prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.". Urology 67 (1). 
  43. ^ Potts JM (2005). "Therapeutic options for chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome.". Curr Urol Rep. 6 (4). 
  44. ^ Clemens JQ, Meenan RT, O'Keeffe Rosetti MC, Gao SY, Calhoun EA (2005). "Incidence and clinical characteristics of National Institutes of Health type III prostatitis in the community". J. Urol. 174 (6): 2319-22. DOI:10.1097/01.ju.0000182152.28519.e7. PMID 16280832. 
  45. ^ "Several inflammatory and reactive alterations of sperm quality seem to be proven; nevertheless, the impact of these findings on male fertility remains in many cases unclear."Weidner W, et al (1999). "Relevance of male accessory gland infection for subsequent fertility with special focus on prostatitis.". Hum Reprod Update. 5 (5). 
  46. ^ "The ratio of free-to-total PSA is significantly different in PCa and NIH category IV prostatitis." Effect of NIH-IV prostatitis on free and free-to-total PSA Eur Urol. 2004 Dec;46(6):760-4. (Stancik I et al)

See also

External links

Diseases of the pelvis, genitals and breasts (N40-N99, 600-629)
Diseases of male genital organs prostate (Benign prostatic hyperplasia, Prostatitis)

testicle/epididymis (Hydrocele testis, Spermatocele, Testicular torsion, Orchitis, Epididymitis, Azoospermia, Oligospermia, Testicular cancer)

penis (Phimosis, Balanoposthitis, Balanitis, Priapism, Erectile dysfunction, Peyronie's disease)
Disorders of breast Gynecomastia, Breast cancer
Inflammatory diseases
of female pelvic organs		 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Salpingitis - Oophoritis - Parametritis
Noninflammatory disorders
of female genital tract		 Endometriosis (Adenomyosis) - Vaginal prolapse (Cystocele, Rectocele) - obstetric fistulae (Vesicovaginal fistula, Rectovaginal fistula) - Ovarian cyst - Ovarian tumor, Retroverted uterus - Hematometra - Leukorrhea - menstruation (Amenorrhoea, Oligomenorrhea, Menorrhagia, Menometrorrhagia, Metrorrhagia, Dysmenorrhea) - intercourse (Dyspareunia, Vaginismus) - Mittelschmerz
See also congenital conditions (Q50-Q56, 752)

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