protectorate

 

in English history, name given to the English government from 1653 to 1659. Following the English civil war and the execution of Charles I, England was declared (1649) a commonwealth under the rule of the Rump Parliament. In 1653, however, Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Rump, replacing it with the Nominated, or Barebone's, Parliament (see Barebone, Praise-God), and when the latter proved ineffectual, he accepted (Dec., 1653) the constitutional document entitled the Instrument of Government, which had been drawn up by a group of army officers. By its terms, Cromwell assumed the title lord protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland and agreed to share his power with a council of state and a Parliament of one house. However, although Parliament met regularly, Cromwell's protectorate was a virtual dictatorship resting on the power of the army. After a royalist uprising, he divided (1655) the country into 11 military districts, each under the administration of a major general who enforced the rigidly puritanical laws and collected taxes. Toleration was extended to Jews and all non-Anglican Protestants, but not to Roman Catholics. In 1654, the first of the Dutch Wars was brought to a close and English sea power turned against Spain. In the Humble Petition and Advice of 1657, Parliament offered Cromwell the throne (which he refused), allowed him to name a successor, and set up an upper house to be chosen by him; but this attempt at constitutional revision had little practical effect on the government. Richard Cromwell succeeded as lord protector on the death of his father in 1658, but he was unable to control the army and resigned in May, 1659. The Rump was recalled and the Commonwealth resumed, and after a period of chaos Gen. George Monck recalled the Long Parliament and brought about the Restoration of Charles II.

Bibliography

See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (4 vol., 1903, repr. 1965); C. Firth, The Last Years of the Protectorate (2 vol., 1909; repr. 1964); I. Roots, Commonwealth and Protectorate: The English Civil War and Its Aftermath (1966).

protectorate, in international law, a relationship in which one state surrenders part of its sovereignty to another. The subordinate state is called a protectorate. The term covers a great variety of relations, but typically the protected state gives up all or part of its control over foreign affairs while retaining a large measure of independence in internal matters. The relation may originate when the dominant power threatens or uses force or when the subordinate sees advantages (usually military protection) in the arrangement. A protectorate is distinguishable from the relation of home country and colony, for the protected state retains its sovereignty (though often only nominally), its territory remains distinct from that of the protector, and its citizens do not become nationals of the protecting state. Initially, in most cases, the extent to which the dominant state may interfere in local affairs is governed by treaty; but since a protected state usually has no access to diplomatic channels, it is in a poor position to resist attempts at increased control. Protectorates in connection with large empires probably have existed from earliest times, and there are known instances in Greek and Roman history. In World War I, Great Britain made Egypt a protectorate. Before the abrogation (1934) of the Platt Amendment, Cuba was essentially a protectorate of the United States. Today no state formally has the status of a protectorate, but several quasi-protectorates do exist, including the Cook Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Niue. The former trust territories of the United Nations (see trusteeship, territorial) were distinguished from protectorates in that they were being prepared for ultimate independence and that the control of the dominant state was subject to scrutiny by the UN Trusteeship Council.

In international law a protectorate is a political entity (a sovereign state or less developed native polity, such as a tribal chiefstainship or feudal princely state) that formally agrees by treaty to enter into an unequal relationship with another, stronger state, called the protector, which engages to protect it (diplomatically or, if needed, militarily) against third parties, in exchange for which the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations, which may vary greatly, depending on the real nature of their relationship.

Rationale

In the case of so-called amical protection, mainly extended by the great powers to fellow Christian (generally European) states and tiny ones without significant intrinsic importance, the terms may often be very favorable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is often moral (a matter of image, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, dynastic, historical or ethno-cultural ties, etc.), and/or countering a rival or enemy power, e.g. preventing the Ottoman empire from maintaining or obtaining control of areas of strategic importance. Even if this involves the very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations, this may constitute no real sacrifice, since they would not have been able to get similar use out of them without the muscle which only the protector can field for its interest.

Often the conditions are far less generous in areas of colonial protection. Here the western powers were generally after real control, so eager to obtain terms that reduced the protectorate to a de facto condition rather similar to a colony, but using the pre-existing native state as an ideal agent of indirect rule; sometimes a protectorate was even established by and/or exercised by the other form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which truly becomes a de facto state 'in' its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to conduct its own foreign policy and generally disposing of its own armed forces.

In fact, 'protectorates' were even declared which were not even duly entered into by pre-existent traditional states, or only by a party in its internal politics of dubious authority, while colonial 'protectors' frequently decided on their own to 'reshuffle' several protectorates into a new, artificial unit, a logic not quite respectful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain the protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreemeent of February 26, 1895 actually stipulated that the colonial powers could declare in Black Africa (the last continent to be further carved up between them) protectorates that could be established by diplomatical notification, even without actual possession on the ground. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as 'colony' and 'protectorate' for an amalgamation, convenient only for the colonizer/protector, of geographically proximious territories over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or 'raw' colonial logic.

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protecting power, so other states must deal with it by approaching the protector. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own, but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations Mandates, and similar United Nations Trust Territories, which gave in practice similar authority to "responsible" Western powers or Japan in various areas of the non-European world over former colonial possessions (including protectorates) of the losers in World Wars I and II, since a protectorate formally enters into the protection itself, while the international mandates are imposed upon them by the 'world community-representing body'.

British & Commonwealth protectorates

Protection is a long-established term in English law for the duty of a sovereign to keep the subject safe from harm, including harm done by the sovereign; the subject has a corresponding duty of allegiance and obedience. Thus, in 1775, George III declared the thirteen colonies "out of his protection" for their disobedience — almost equivalent to a declaration of war.

When the British took over Cephallenia in 1809, they proclaimed that "We present ourselves to you, Inhabitants of Cephalonia, not as Invaders, with views of conquest, but as Allies who hold forth to you the advantages of British protection." When the British continued to occupy the Ionian Islands after the Napoleonic wars, they did not formally annex the islands, but described them as a protectorate. The islands were constituted by the Treaty of Paris in 1815 as the independent United States of the Ionian Islands under British protection.

Other British protectorates followed. In 1894 Prime Minister William Gladstone's government officially announced that Uganda was to become a British Protectorate, where Muslim and Christian strife had attracted international attention. The British administration installed carefully selected local kings under a program of indirect rule through the local oligarchy, creating a network of British-controlled civil service. Most British protectorates were overseen by a Commissioner or a High Commissioner, rather than a Governor.

British law made a distinction between a protectorate and protected state. Constitutionally the two were of similar status:

• Britain controlled defence and external relations in both cases
• however in protectorates Britain established an internal government, while in protected states a form of local internal self-government was already in existence.

Persons connected with former British protectorates, protected states, mandated or trust territories may still be British protected persons if they did not acquire the nationality of their country at independence. (See British nationality law)

Other cases include:

Americas

• Mosquito Coast (1655-1860)(amical, over Central America's Miskito Indian nation)

Middle East

• Aden Protectorates in Yemen (1873-1967)
• Egypt (1882-1922) (officially with the Suez Canal in 1956)
• British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822-1971)
  • Bahrain (1880-1971)
  • Kuwait (1899-1961)
  • Oman (informal; 1891-1971)
  • Qatar (1916-1971)
  • Trucial States, precursor of the UAE (1892-1971)

South and South East Asia

• Afghanistan (1879-1919)
• Bhutan (1910-1947)
• British North Borneo (1888-1946)
• Brunei (1888-1984)
• Federation of Malaya (1948-1957)
  • Federated Malay States (1895-1946)
  • Unfederated Malay States (various-1946)
• Maldives (1887-1965)
• Sarawak (1888-1946)

Subsaharan Africa

• Basutoland (1868-1871, 1884-1966)
• British Central Africa (1893-1907)
• British East Africa Protectorate (1895-1920)
• British Somaliland (1887-1960)
• Bechuanaland Protectorate (1884-1966)
• Gambia Protectorate (1894-1965)
• Gold Coast Protectorate (1902-1957)
• Kenya Protectorate (1920-1963)
• Northern Rhodesia (1924-1964)
• Nyasaland Protectorate (1907-1964)
• in present Nigeria: Bight of Biafra, Bight of Benin and after their merger Bight of Biafra and Benin Niger Coast Protectorate; Northern Nigeria Protectorate and Southern Nigeria Protectorate (established 16 Jul 1884 over Brass, Bonny, Opobo, Aobh and Old Calabar (excluding Lagos), confirmed 5 Jun 1885), as Oil Rivers Protectorate)
• Sierra Leone as a whole was no protectorate but a crown colony (1896-1961); however within a few monarchies were not eliminated:
  • the Shenge kingdom founded by the Caulker family (Plantatin Island) in 1810, since 1861 under British protectorate, in 1888 incorporated into Sierra Leone (dynasty ended)
  • Temne (Koya-Temne) kingdom (ruler style Bais^{[disambiguation needed]}) since 31 August 1896 a British protectorate.
• Swaziland (1902-1968)
• Uganda Protectorate (1894-1962)
• Walvis Bay protectorate (1878-1884)
• Zanzibar (1890-1963)

Oceania

• British Solomon Islands (1893-1978)
• Cook Islands (1888-1901)
• Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1892-1916)
• Niue (1900-1901)
• Tokelau (1877-1916)
• Tonga (1900-1970)

Dutch

• various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present Indonesia)

German

The German Empire (Second Reich) used the word Schutzgebiet, literally 'protectorate', for its true colonies as well until they were lost during World War I. Cases involving indirect rule included;

In the Pacific:

• German New Guinea
• Nauru, various officials posted with the Head Chiefs
• northern Solomon islands

In Africa:

• sultanate of Witu, in Kenya
• German South-West Africa (later Namibia)
• Rwanda, a Resident with the native Mwami (king)
• Urundi, a Resident with the native Mwami (king; 1908 Sultan)

Besides these colonial uses, within Europe the Nazi Third Reich established:

• Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from 1939 to 1945 (a Nazi puppet regime in the Czech lands)
• Slovakia from 1939 to 1945, the German representative being officially a diplomat styled Envoy and Minister Plenipotentiary.

French protectorates

• Saar (1947-1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former League of Nations mandate.

Most French protectorates were rather colonial:

Asia

• In present India: Arkat (Arcot/Carnatic) was 1692 - 1750 a French protectorate until 1763 independence recognized under British protectorate
• In French Indochina until 1953/54:
  • Cambodia 11 August 1863
  • Annam and Tonkin 6 June 1884
  • Laos 3 October 1893

North African and Indian Ocean Muslim cultures

• Comoros 21 April 1886 French protectorate (Anjouan *) till 25 Jul 1912 annexed
• present Djibouti was originally, since 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Française d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
• Mauritania on 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritanian several traditional states:
  • Adrar emirate since 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
  • the Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), since 1905 under French protectorate.
  •  ? Brakna confederation's emirate
  • Trarza confederation's emirate since 15 December 1902 a French protectorate
• Morocco - most of the sultanate was 30 March 1912 - 2 March 1956 French protectorate *
• over Madagascar Traditional States
  • 6 August 1896 Kingdom of Imerina under French protectorate. 28 February 1897 French Madagascar colony.
• Tunisia 12 May 1881 becomes a French protectorate by treaty. ... 20 March 1956 French protectorate terminated.

Sub-saharan Africa

• in Benin traditional states
  • ... 1889 Independent of Danhome, under French protectorate
  • 23 February 1863 - 2 January 1865 Porto-Novo a French protectorate. 19 May 1868 Cotonou a French Protectorate. 14 April 1882 Porto-Novo French protectorate. ...
• in Central African Republic traditional states:
  • 12 December 1897 French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French)
  • 1894 French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou *
• present Burkina Faso was since 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Haute-Volta ('Upper Volta')
• in Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
• Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
• Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
• in Niger, Damagaram sultanate (later capital Zinder) since 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan)
• in Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers

Oceania

• in French Polynesia, mainly the Society Islands (several other were immediately annexed)
  • 1842 Otaheiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti
  • 1880 Ra`iatea and Taha`a (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate
  • 16 Jan 1844 Mangareva (on eof the of Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate.
• on Wallis and Futuna:
  • 4 November 1842 Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet of ...
  • 5 April 1887 `Uvea (Wallis) becomes a French protectorate.

Italian

In Europe:

• Monaco-20 November 1815 under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia to 1860.
• 1941-1943, Montenegro

In the colonial empire:

• Ethiopia: the 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
• in Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
• in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the north east; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to the Italian Somalia (Italian Somaliland) colony.
  • Majerteen or Harti sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 Apr 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
  • Sultanate of Hobyo (formerly the Hiraab Imamate until it's conquest by a Majerteen warlord) since Dec 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 Apr 1895), then in Oct 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).

Japanese

• held a protectorate over the monarchy of Korea before annexing that country in 1910.
• Manchukuo (1932-1945)

Russian

• Emirate of Bukhara (1873-1920)
• Khanate of Khiva (1873-1920)

Spanish

• in Morocco 27 November 1912 - 7 April 1956 the so-called Spanish Zone (de jure joint protectorate but de facto most of the sultanate was under French protection).
• in Mauritania: Adrar emirate since 1886 under Spanish protectorate till 9 January 1909, then a French protectorate.

Joint protectorates

compare condominium

• the Adriatic republic of Ragusa (presently Dubrovnic in Croatian Dalmatia) was a joint Habsburg Austrian - Ottoman Turkish protectorate 20 August 1684 - 24 August 1798 - so exceptionally both a Catholic and a Muslim protector
• The United States of the Ionian Islands were a federal Septinsular Republic of seven formerly Venetian (see Provveditore) Ionian islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo and Paxos), officially under joint protectorate of the Allied Christian Powers, de facto a UK amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.

Contemporary usage by the United States

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency, still use the term protectorate to refer to insular areas of the United States such as Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as were the Philippines and (it can be argued via the Platt Amendment) Cuba at the end of Spanish colonial rule. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior exclusively uses the term insular area rather than protectorate.

See also

• Tribute
• Chinese Protectorate
• suzerainty
• tributary (political)
• Protector (titles for Heads of State and other individual persons)
• British protected person
• The Protectorate (government of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1653-1659)

Sources and references

(incomplete)

• WorldStatesmen- see each modern state, here grouped by colonial/protecting power
• Nouveau Larousse Illustré, undated, early 20th century, in French

Colonialism
Belgian  British  Danish  Dutch  French  German  Italian  Japanese  Portuguese  Russian  Spanish  Swedish

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