Dictionary:
punc·tu·a·tion (pŭngk'chū-ā'shən)  |
| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: punctuation |
For more information on punctuation, visit Britannica.com.
| Classical Literature Companion: punctuation |
Punctuation existed in Greek texts from at least the fourth century BC, but its use was sporadic (as it was later in Latin texts). What it consisted of can be inferred from the papyri (see PAPYROLOGY) and early manuscripts, and from explicit statements by Dionysius Thrax. In practice scribes of Greek and Latin texts rarely used more than two marks, the equivalent of the full-stop and the comma. Only for Homer was there a more sophisticated system, invented by Nicanor in the second century AD. See also BOOKS AND WRITING.
| Columbia Encyclopedia: punctuation |
The intonations of declaration are classified in three types, symbolized by the comma (,), used to separate words or phrases for clarity; the semicolon (;), used to mark separation between elements in a series of related phrases, generally in a long sentence; and the full stop, or period (.), used to mark the end of a sentence. Other intonations are shown by the exclamation point (!); the interrogation point, or question mark (?); the parenthesis [()], used to set off a word or phrase from a sentence that is complete without it; and the colon (:), typically used to introduce material that elaborates on what has already been said. Quotation marks (“”) indicate direct quotation or some borrowing, and usually demand special intonation. The ellipsis (...) is used to indicate the place in a passage where material has been omitted or a thought has trailed off. The long dash (—) is especially used in handwriting for incomplete intonation patterns.
Punctuation of material intended to be read silently rather than aloud—the far more usual case today—has introduced refinements designed to help the reader: brackets ([]), a secondary parenthesis; capital letters; paragraphing; and indentation. Two other frequent signs are the apostrophe ('), marking an omission of one or two letters, or a possessive case, and the hyphen (-), marking a line division or an intimate joining, as in compound words. These last two are practically extra letters, and their use, belonging with spelling rather than with punctuation, is highly arbitrary.
Each written language has its tradition of punctuation, often very different from that used in English; thus, in German nouns are capitalized, and in Spanish the beginnings of exclamations and of questions are marked with inverted signs. See also accent.
Bibliography
See W. D. Drake, The Way to Punctuate (1971); Words into Type (3d ed. 1974); D. Hacker, A Writer's Reference (4th ed. 1999); Univ. of Chicago Press, The Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed. 2003).
| Word Tutor: punctuation |
To write well, you must use punctuation correctly.
| Wikipedia: Punctuation |
Punctuation is everything in written language other than the actual letters or numbers, including punctuation marks (listed at right), inter-word spaces, and indentation.[1]
Punctuation marks are symbols that correspond to neither phonemes (sounds) of a language nor to lexemes (words and phrases), but which serve to indicate the structure and organization of writing, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading it aloud. See orthography.
In English, punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of sentences. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing," and "woman: without her, man is nothing," have greatly different meanings, as do "eats shoots and leaves" and "eats, shoots and leaves."[2] "King Charles walked and talked half an hour after his head was cut off" is alarming; "King Charles walked and talked; half an hour after, his head was cut off", less so.
The rules of punctuation vary with language, location, register and time, and are constantly evolving. Certain aspects of punctuation are stylistic and are thus the author's (or editor's) choice. Tachygraphic language forms, such as those used in online chat and text messages, may have wildly different rules.
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The earliest writing had no capitalization, no spaces, and a few punctuation marks. This worked as long as the subject matter was restricted to a limited range of topics (for example, writing was initially used for recording business transactions). Expanding the use of writing to more abstract concepts required some way to disambiguate meanings. Until the 18th century, punctuation was principally an aid to reading aloud; after that time its development was as a mechanism for ensuring that the text made sense when read silently.[1]
The oldest known document that uses punctuation is the Mesha Stele (9th century BC). This employs points between the words and horizontal strokes between the sense section as punctuation.
The Greeks were using punctuation marks consisting of vertically arranged dots - usually two (c.f. the modern colon) or three - in around the 5th century BC. Greek playwrights (e.g., Euripides and Aristophanes) used symbols to distinguish the ends of phrases in written drama: this essentially helped the play's cast to know when to pause. In particular, they used three different symbols to divide speeches, known as commas (indicated by a centred dot), colons (indicated by a dot on the base line), and periods or full stops (indicated by a raised dot).
The Romans (circa 1st century BC) also adopted symbols to indicate pauses.
Punctuation developed dramatically when large numbers of copies of the Christian Bible started to be produced. These were designed to be read aloud and the copyists began to introduce a range of marks to aid the reader, including indentation, various punctuation marks and an early version of initial capitals. St Jerome and his colleagues, who produced the Vulgate translation of the Bible into Latin, developed an early system (circa 400 AD); this was considerably improved on by Alcuin. The marks included the virgule (forward slash) and dots in different locations; the dots were centred in the line, raised or in groups.
The use of punctuation was not standardized until after the invention of printing. Credit for introducing a standard system is generally given to Aldus Manutius and his grandson. They popularized the practice of ending sentences with the colon or full stop, invented the semicolon, made occasional use of parentheses and created the modern comma by lowering the virgule.[2]
The standards and limitations of evolving technologies have exercised further pragmatic influences. For example, minimisation of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film ribbons, since a period or comma consumed the same length of expensive non-reusable ribbon as did a capital letter.
Other European languages use much the same punctuation as English. The similarity is so strong that the few variations may confuse a native English reader. Quotation marks are particularly variable across European languages. For example, in French and Russian, quotes would appear as: « Je suis fatigué. » (in French, each "double punctuation", as the guillemet, requires a non-breaking space; in Russian it does not). In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (·), known as the ano teleia (άνω τελεία).
Arabic and Farsi(Persian) languages—written from right to left—use a reversed question mark: ؟, and a reversed comma: ، . However, Hebrew, which is also written from right to left, uses the same character as in English (?).
Originally Sanskrit had no punctuation. In the 1600s, Sanskrit and Marathi, both written in the Devanagari script, started using the vertical bar (|) to end a line of prose and double vertical bars (||) in verse.
Texts in the Chinese, Japanese and Korean languages were left unpunctuated until the modern era. In unpunctuated texts, the grammatical structure of sentences in classical writing is inferred from context. Most punctuation marks in modern Chinese, Japanese and Korean have similar functions to their English counterparts; however, they often look different and have different customary rules.
An international patent application was filed, and published in 1992 under WO number WO9219458,[3] for two new punctuation marks: the "question comma" and the "exclamation comma". The patent application entered into national phase exclusively with Canada, advertised as lapsing in Australia on 27 January 1994[4] and in Canada on 6 November 1995.[5]
Russian designer Artemy Lebedev suggested a double-comma sign,[6] which he believes would communicate a pause better than the semicolon does. Lebedev, however, seems unaware of the widespread use of semicolon in English (in Russian, independent clauses can be separated by commas; as a result, the semicolon is used — infrequently — only for stylistic purposes).
7. General Principles Of Punctuation - What Are Punctuations And How To Use Them
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| Aa | Bb | Cc | Dd | Ee | Ff | Gg | Hh | Ii | Jj | Kk | Ll | Mm | Nn | Oo | Pp | Rr | Ss | Tt | Uu | Vv | Ww | Xx | Yy | Zz | |
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history • palaeography • derivations • diacritics • punctuation • numerals • Unicode • list of letters • ISO/IEC 646 |
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| Essential Desk Reference: Style and Usage: Punctuation |
Punctuation is an essential element of good writing because it makes the author’s meaning clear to the reader. Although precise punctuation styles may vary somewhat among published sources, there are a number of fundamental principles worthy of consideration. Discussed below are the punctuation marks used in English:
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comma |
apostrophe |
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semicolon |
quotation marks |
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colon |
parentheses |
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period |
dash |
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question mark |
hyphen |
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exclamation point |
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The comma is the most frequently used mark of punctuation in the English language. It signals to the reader a pause, which generally clarifies the author’s meaning, and establishes a sensible order to the elements of written language. Among the most typical functions of the comma are the following:
1. It can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there are two independent clauses joined by a conjunction, especially when the clauses are not very short:
It never occurred to me to look in the attic, and I’m sure it didn’t occur to Rachel either.
The Nelsons wanted to see the Grand Canyon at sunrise, but they overslept that morning.
2. It can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there is a series of independent clauses, the last two of which are joined by a conjunction:
The bus ride to the campsite was very uncomfortable, the cabins were not ready for us when we got there, the cook had forgotten to start dinner, and the rain was torrential.
3. It is used to precede or set off, and therefore indicate, a nonrestrictive dependent clause (a clause that could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main clause):
I read her autobiography, which was published last July.
They showed up at midnight, after most of the guests had gone home.
The coffee, which is freshly brewed, is in the kitchen.
4. It can follow an introductory phrase:
Having enjoyed the movie so much, he agreed to see it again.
Born and raised in Paris, she had never lost her French accent.
In the beginning, they had very little money to invest.
5. It can set off words used in direct address:
Listen, people, you have no choice in the matter.
Yes, Mrs. Greene, I will be happy to feed your cat.
6. The comma can separate two or more coordinate adjectives (adjectives that could otherwise be joined with and) that modify one noun:
The cruise turned out to be the most entertaining, fun, and relaxing vacation
I’ve ever had.
The horse was tall, lean, and sleek.
Note that cumulative adjectives (those not able to be joined with and) are not separated by a comma:
She wore bright yellow rubber boots.
7. Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series or list:
Charlie, Melissa, Stan, and Mark will be this year’s soloists in the spring concert.
We need furniture, toys, clothes, books, tools, housewares, and other useful merchandise for the benefit auction.
Note that the comma between the last two items in a series is sometimes omitted in less precise style:
The most popular foods served in the cafeteria are pizza, hamburgers and nachos.
8. Use a comma to separate and set off the elements in an address or other geographical designation:
My new house is at 1657 Nighthawk Circle, South Kingsbury, Michigan.
We arrived in Pamplona, Spain, on Thursday.
9. Use a comma to set off direct quotations (note the placement or absence of commas with other punctuation):
“Kim forgot her gloves,” he said, “but we have a pair she can borrow.”
There was a long silence before Jack blurted out, “This must be the world’s ugliest painting.”
“What are you talking about?” she asked in a puzzled manner.
“Happy New Year!” everyone shouted.
10. A comma is used to set off titles after a person’s name:
Katherine Bentley, M.D.
Steven Wells, Esq.
The semicolon has two basic functions:
1. It can separate two main clauses, particularly when these clauses are of equal importance:
The crowds gathered outside the museum hours before the doors were opened; this was one exhibit no one wanted to miss.
She always complained when her relatives stayed for the weekend; even so, she usually was a little sad when they left.
2. It can be used as a comma is used to separate such elements as clauses or items in a series or list, particularly when one or more of the elements already includes a comma:
The path took us through the deep, dark woods; across a small meadow; into a cold, wet cave; and up a hillside overlooking
the lake.
Listed for sale in the ad were two bicycles; a battery-powered, leaf-mulching lawn mower; and a maple bookcase.
The colon has five basic functions:
1. It can introduce something, especially a list of items:
In the basket were three pieces of mail: a postcard, a catalog, and a wedding invitation.
Students should have the following items: backpack, loose-leaf notebook, pens and pencils, pencil sharpener, and ruler.
2. It can separate two clauses in a sentence when the second clause is being used to explain or illustrate the first clause:
We finally understood why she would never go sailing with us: she had a deep fear of the water.
Most of the dogs in our neighborhood are quite large: two of them are St. Bernards.
3. It can introduce a statement or a quotation:
His parents say the most important rule is this: Always tell the truth.
We repeated the final words of his poem: “And such is the plight of fools like me.”
4. It can be used to follow the greeting in a formal or business letter:
Dear Ms. Daniels:
Dear Sir or Madam:
5. In the U.S., the colon separates minutes from hours, and seconds from minutes, in showing time of day and measured lengths of time:
Please be at the restaurant before 6:45.
Her best running time so far has been 00:12:35.
The period has two basic functions:
1. It is used to mark the end of a sentence:
It was reported that there is a shortage of nurses at the hospital. Several of the patients have expressed concern about this problem.
2. It is often used at the end of an abbreviation:
On Fri., Sept. 12, Dr. Brophy noted that the patient’s weight was 168 lbs. and that his height was 6 ft. 2 in.
(Note that another period is not added to the end of the sentence when the last word is an abbreviation.)
Question Mark and Exclamation PointThe only sentences that do not end in a period are those that end in either a question mark or an exclamation point.
Question marks are used to mark the end of a sentence that asks a direct question (generally, a question that expects an answer):
Is there any reason for us to bring more than a few dollars?
Who is your science teacher?
Exclamation points are used to mark the end of a sentence that expresses a strong feeling, typically surprise, joy, or anger:
I want you to leave and never come back!
What a beautiful view this is!
The apostrophe has two basic functions:
1. It is used to show where a letter or letters are missing in a contraction:
The directions are cont’d [continued] on the next page.
We’ve [we have] decided that if she can’t [cannot] go, then we aren’t [are not] going either.
2. It can be used to show possession:
a. The possessive of a singular noun or an irregular plural noun is created by adding an apostrophe and an s:
the pilot’s uniform
Mrs. Mendoza’s house
a tomato’s bright red color
the oxen’s yoke
b. The possessive of a regular plural noun is created by adding just an apostrophe:
the pilots’ uniforms [referring to more than one pilot]
the Mendozas’ house [referring to the Mendoza family]
the tomatoes’ bright red color [referring to more than one tomato]
Quotation marks have two basic functions:
1. They are used to set off direct quotations (an exact rendering of someone’s spoken or written words):
“I think the new library is wonderful,” she remarked to David.
We were somewhat lost, so we asked, “Are we anywhere near the art gallery?”
In his letter he had written, “The nights here are quiet and starry. It seems like a hundred years since I’ve been wakened
by the noise of city traffic and squabbling neighbors.”
Note that indirect quotes (which often are preceded by that, if, or whether) are not set off by quotation marks:
He told me that he went to school in Boston.
We asked if we could still get tickets to the game.
2. They can be used to set off words or phrases that have specific technical usage, or to set off meanings of words, or to indicate words that are being used in a special way in a sentence:
The part of the flower that bears the pollen is the “stamen.”
When I said “plain,” I meant “flat land,” not “ordinary.”
Oddly enough, in the theater, the statement “break a leg” is meant as an expression of good luck.
What you call “hoagies,” we call “grinders” or “submarine sandwiches.”
He will never be a responsible adult until he outgrows his “Peter Pan” behavior.
Note that sometimes single quotation marks (the ’stamen.’), rather than double quotation marks as above (the “stamen.”), may be used to set off words or phrases. What is most important is to be consistent in such usage.
ParenthesesParentheses are used, in pairs, to enclose information that gives extra detail or explanation to the regular text. Parentheses are used in two basic ways:
1. They can separate a word or words in a sentence from the rest of the sentence:
On our way to school, we walk past the Turner Farm (the oldest dairy farm in town) and watch the cows being fed.
The stores were filled with holiday shoppers (even more so than last year).
(Note that the period goes outside the parentheses, because the words in the parentheses are only part of the sentence.)
2. They can form a separate complete sentence:
Please bring a dessert to the dinner party. (It can be something very simple.) I look forward to seeing you there.
(Note that the period goes inside the parentheses, because the words in the parentheses are a complete and independent sentence.)
DashA dash is used most commonly to replace the usage of parentheses within sentences. If the information being set off is in the middle of the sentence, a pair of dashes is used; if it is at the end of the sentence, just one dash is used:
On our way to school, we walk past the Turner Farm—the oldest dairy farm in town—and watch the cows being fed.
The stores were filled with holiday shoppers—even more so than last year.
A hyphen has three basic functions:
1. It can join two or more words to make a compound, especially when so doing makes the meaning more clear to the reader:
We met to discuss long-range planning.
There were six four-month-old piglets at the fair.
That old stove was quite a coal-burner.
2. It can replace the word “to” when a span or range of data is given:
John Adams was president of the United States 1797-1801.
Today we will look for proper nouns in the L-N section of the dictionary.
The ideal weight for that breed of dog would be 75-85 pounds.
3. It can indicate a word break at the end of a line. The break must always be between syllables:
It is important for any writer to know that there are numerous punctuation principles that are considered standard and proper, but there is also flexibility regarding acceptable punctuation. Having learned the basic “rules” of good punctuation, the writer will be able to adopt a specific and consistent style of punctuation that best suits the material he or she is writing.
Garner, Bryan A. A Dictionary of Modern American Usage. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
| Translations: Punctuation |
Dansk (Danish)
n. - tegnsætning
idioms:
Nederlands (Dutch)
interpunctie
Français (French)
n. - ponctuation
idioms:
Deutsch (German)
n. - Zeichensetzung
idioms:
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (γραμμ.) στίξη
idioms:
Italiano (Italian)
punteggiatura
idioms:
Português (Portuguese)
n. - pontuação (f)
idioms:
idioms:
Español (Spanish)
n. - puntuación
idioms:
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - interpunktion, kommatering
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
标点法, 标点符号, 标点
idioms:
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 標點法, 標點符號, 標點
idioms:
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 句読, 句読法, 中断
idioms:
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) وضع علامات الوقف و الترقيم الخ
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - פיסוק, סימני-פיסוק, הטלת סימני-פיסוק
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 | Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2007. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. © 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Classical Literature Companion. The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Copyright © 1993, 2003 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/ Read more |
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| Word Tutor. Copyright © 2004-present by eSpindle Learning, a 501(c) nonprofit organization. All rights reserved. eSpindle provides personalized spelling and vocabulary tutoring online; free trial. Read more |
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| Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Punctuation". Read more |
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| Essential Desk Reference. The Essenial Desk Reference Dictionary. Copyright © 2002 by Oxford University Press, Inc.. All rights reserved. Read more |
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