Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca. 35-ca. 100) was a
Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in
Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian,
although the alternate spellings of Quintillian and Quinctilian are occasionally seen, the latter in older
texts.
Life
Quintillian was born ca. 35 in Calagurris (now Calahorra,
La Rioja) in Hispania. His father, a
well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero. While there, he
cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer, who died in 59.
"It had always been the custom … for young men with ambitions in public life to fix upon some older model of their ambition … and
regard him as a mentor" (Kennedy, 16). Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases
in the law courts. Afer has been characterized as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker than those common at the time of
Seneca, and he may have inspired Quintilian’s love of Cicero.
Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Spain, possibly to practice law in the courts of his own province.
However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba, Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been a close advisor of the Emperor, which
probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69.
After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which
followed, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric. Among his students were
Pliny the Younger, and perhaps Tacitus. The Emperor
Vespasian made him a consul. The emperor "in general was not
especially interested in the arts, but…was interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling
class" (19). This subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school, since it freed him of pressing monetary concerns.
In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients.
Of his personal life, little is known. In the Institutio Oratoria, he mentions a wife who died young, as well as two
sons who predeceased him.
Quintilian retired from teaching and pleading in 88, during the reign of Domitian. His retirement may have been prompted by his achievement of financial security and his desire to
become a gentleman of leisure. Quintilian had also survived under several emperors; the reigns of Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, but Domitian was reputed to be difficult even at the best of times. Domitian’s
increasing cruelty and paranoia may have prompted the rhetorician to quietly distance himself. The emperor does not appear to
have taken offence; in the year 90, Quintilian was made tutor of Domitian's two grand-nephews and
heirs. Even this may not have been a vote of confidence; "by the time [Quintilian] finished the Institutio Oratoria, the
two young men—potential rivals to a shaky throne—had vanished into exile" (Murphy, xx). Otherwise, Quintilian spent his
retirement writing his Institutio Oratoria. The exact date of his death is not known, but is believed to be sometime
around 100. He does not appear to have long survived Domitian, who was assassinated in
96.
Works
The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled Institutio Oratoria. This work
deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself. An earlier text, De Causis
Corruptae Eloquentiae ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence") has been lost, but is believed to have been "a preliminary
exposition of some of the views later set forth in [Institutio Oratoria]" (Kennedy, 24).
In addition, there are two sets of declamations, Declamationes Majores and Declamationes Minores, which have
been attributed to Quintilian. However, there is some dispute over the real writer of these texts; "Some modern scholars believe
that the declamations circulated in his name represent the lecture notes of a scholar either using Quintilian's system or
actually trained by him" (Murphy, xvii-xviii).
Institutio Oratoria
Introduction
As mentioned above, Quintilian wrote his book during the last years of the reign of Emperor Domitian. In the tradition of
several Roman emperors, such as Nero and Caligula, Domitian’s regime grew harsher as time went
on. “[A]n active secret police preyed on the Roman population, and even senators were encouraged in various ways to inform on
each other…under Domitian, even the slightest suspicion of disrespect for the emperor became a capital crime” (xx). Social and
political corruption were rife. In a move of utmost irony, the debauched Domitian appointed himself “censor perpetuus,
making himself responsible for public morals” (xx).
Against this backdrop, it was very difficult to find orators in the tradition of
Cicero, part of whose "fame as an orator stems from his public denunciations of enemies of the state" (xix). Such
positions were simply too dangerous to take during the reign of the emperors since Augustus.
Therefore, the role of the orator had changed since Cicero's day. Now, they were more concerned with pleading cases than anything
else. Into this time, Quintilian attempted to interject some of the idealism of an earlier time. “Political oratory was dead, and
everyone in Rome knew it was dead; but Quintilian deliberately chooses the oratory of a past generation as his educational ideal”
(Gwynn, 188).
Quintilian on Rhetoric
In Quintilian’s time, rhetoric was primarily composed of three aspects: the theoretical, the educational, and the practical.
Institutio Oratoria does not claim originality; Quintilian drew from a number of sources in compiling his work. This
eclecticism also prevented him from adhering too rigidly to any particular school of thought on the matter, although Cicero
stands out among the other sources. Quintilian also refused any short, simple lists of rules; he evidently felt that the study
and art of rhetoric could not be so reduced. This might explain the length of Institutio Oratoria, which consists of
twelve books.
From the middle of the first century BC to Quintilian's time, there had been a flowering of Roman rhetoric. But by
Quintilian's time, the current of popular taste in oratory was rife with what has been called "silver Latin," a style that
favored ornate embellishment over clarity and precision. Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria can in many ways be read as a
reaction against this trend; it advocates a return to simpler and clearer language. It may also reflect the influence of the late
Emperor Vespasian, who was “[a] man of plebeian stock,…a down-to-earth realist with the common touch” (Murray, 431); Vespasian
disliked excess and extravagance, and his patronage of Quintilian may have influenced the latter’s views of language. Cicero is
the model Quintilian adopts as the standard-bearer for this form; during the previous century, Cicero’s far more concise style
was the standard. This relates to his discussion of nature and art. Quintilian evidently preferred the natural, especially in
language, and disliked the excessive ornamentation popular in the style of his contemporaries. Deviating from natural language
and the natural order of thought in pursuit of an over-elaborate style created confusion in both the orator and his audience.
“Even difficult questions can be dealt with by an orator of moderate ability if he is content to follow nature as his leader and
does not give all his attention to a showy style” (Gwynn, 78).
Institutio Oratoria is effectively a comprehensive textbook of the technical aspects of rhetoric. From the eleventh
chapter of Book II to the end of Book XI, Quintilian covers such topics as natural order, the relation of nature and art,
invention, proof, emotion, and language. Perhaps most influential among the ideas discussed is his examination of
tropes and figures, found in Books 8 and
9. “[A] trope involves the substitution of one word for another, a figure does not necessarily entail any change either to the
order or the meaning of words” (Leitch, 156). An example of a trope would be metaphor, the altering of a word’s meaning. A
figure, on the other hand, gives the words a new aspect or greater emotional value. Figures are divided into figures of thought,
which may make proof seem more forceful, intensify emotions, or add elegance or ornamentation; and figures of diction, which is
further subdivided into “the grammatical, in which the form of the word creates the figure, and the rhetorical, in which the
position of the word is the primary factor” (Gwynn, 88).
A good part of this work, of course, deals with the technical aspects of rhetoric and the Institutio Oratoria stands —
along with Aristotle's 'Rhetoric' and Cicero's works — as one of the ancient world's greatest
works on rhetoric. He organizes the practice of oratory into five canons: inventio (discovery of arguments),
dispositio (arrangement of arguments), elocutio (expression or style), memoria (memorization), and
pronuntiatio (delivery). For each canon, particularly the first three, he provides a thorough exposition of all the
elements that must be mastered and considered in developing and presenting arguments. The thorough and sensible presentation
reflect his long experience as orator and teacher, and in many ways the work can be seen as the culmination of Greek and Roman
rhetorical theory.
Throughout these and other discussions, Quintilian remains concerned with the practical, applicable aspect, rather than the
theoretical. Unlike many modern theorists, he “does not see figurative language as a threat to the stability of linguistic
reference” (Leitch, 156). The referential use of a word was always the primary meaning, and the use of figurative language was
merely an addition to it, not a replacement for it.
Quintilian on Education
“My aim, then, is the education of the perfect orator” (Quintilianus, 1.Preface.9). Book I of Institutio Oratoria
discusses at length the proper method of training an orator, virtually from birth. This focus on early and comprehensive
education was in many ways a reflection of Quintilian’s career; Emperor Vespasian’s influence on the official status of education
marked the period as one of conscientious education. Quintilian’s contribution to this line of thought, aside from his long
career as a public educator, was the opening of his text, and it is regarded as a highlight of the discussion:
“Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria is a landmark in the history of Roman education: it is the culmination of a long
development, and it had no successor… [No] teacher was found who could speak with Quintilian’s authority, no orator sufficiently
interested in the theory of his art to produce a second de Oratore” (Gwynn, 242).
His theory of education is one area in which Quintilian differs from Cicero. Cicero called for a broad, general education;
Quintilian was more focused. He lays out the educational process step by step, from “hav[ing] a father conceive the highest hopes
of his son from the moment of his birth” (Quintilianus, 1.1.1). Other concerns are that the child’s nurse should speak well (“The
ideal according to Chrysippus, would be that she should be a philosopher” (1.1.4)), and that both the parents and the teachers of
the child should be well-educated. With respect to the parents, Quintilian “do[es] not restrict this remark to fathers alone”
(1.1.6); a well-educated mother is regarded as an asset to the growing orator. Quintilian also presents a wide review of suitable
literary examples, and this work is also an important work of literary criticism.
While he clearly favors certain writers, his fairness is notable, as even writers, such as Sallust, an influential practitioner of the sort of style that Quintilian opposed, are afforded some
consideration. Above all, Quintilian holds up Cicero as an example of a great writer and orator.
Quintilian discusses many issues of education that are still relevant today. He believed that education should be begun early,
as mentioned above, but also that it should be pleasurable for the child. “Above all things we must take care that the child, who
is not yet old enough to love his studies, does not come to hate them and dread, the bitterness which he had once tasted, even
when the years of infancy are left behind. His studies must be made an amusement” (1.1.20). The proliferation of educational toys
available for pre-school aged children shows that this view still has power. He also examines the various pros and cons of public
schooling versus homeschooling, eventually coming out in favour of public school, so long
as it is a good school. His view is that public schools teach social skills along with their studies, and a student would benefit
more from this than from studying in seclusion. One must note, however, that Quintilian makes a point of declaring that “a good
teacher will not burden himself with a larger number of pupils than he can manage, and it is further of the very first importance
that he should be on only friendly and intimate terms with us and make his teaching not a duty but a labor of love” (1.2.15).
Quintilian’s most arresting point about the growing orator, however, is that he should be educated in morality above all else. To Quintilian, only a good man could be an orator. This is another aspect where he
differs from Cicero, or rather pushes further Cicero’s injunction that an orator should be a good man. Quintilian quite literally
believed that an evil man could not be an orator, “[f]or the orator’s aim is to carry conviction, and we trust those only whom we
know to be worthy of our trust” (Gwynn, 231). This was quite possibly a reaction to the corrupt and dissolute times in which
Quintilian lived; he may have attributed the decline in the role of the orator to the decline in public morality. Only a man free
from vice could concentrate on the exacting study of oratory. But “the good man does not always speak the truth or even defend
the better cause…what matters is not so much the act as the motive” (Clarke, 117). Therefore, Quintilian’s good orator is
personally good, but not necessarily publicly good.
Limitations of Institutio Oratoria
Several limitations have been pointed out in Quintilian’s work. Among them is the injunction that he was too immersed in the
culture of rhetoric. Because of his position and his profession, it was impossible for him to view rhetoric from the outside.
Therefore, it would have been difficult for him to entertain any doubts about its value. This helps explain his ideal orator as a
morally good man—-rhetoric to Quintilian was in itself inherently good. It may also shed some light on his view of
philosophy; he “considered rhetoric to be the basis of all education, [and] viewed philosophy
as a challenge to its supremacy” (Dominik, 53). He believed that an orator should read philosophy, but only because philosophy
had usurped some of the functions of oratory in the first place.
Another limitation of Quintilian is that he is inevitably a victim of his own educational tradition. As mentioned above, he
lived in a time of flowery, ornate language. Therefore, although he obviously prefers natural language and attempts to interject
some simplicity into the way language is taught, to a certain degree he is forced to accept the unnatural language of his time,
simply because of the force of current fashion.
Finally, some have called into question the idea of the ideal orator. The education so dictated in Institutio Oratoria
was designed to create a person who had never existed, and probably never would. Quintilian seemed willfully unconscious of the
changes since the days of great Ciceronian oratory. To what end would this perfect orator be created, if there was no place for
him?
Influence of Quintilian
The influence of Quintilian’s masterwork, Institutio Oratoria, can be felt in several areas. First of all, there is his
criticism of the orator Seneca. Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and
Seneca was the principal figure in that style’s tradition. He was more recent than many of the authors mentioned by Quintilian,
but his reputation within the post-classical style necessitated both his mention and the criticism or back-handed praise that is
given to him. Quintilian believed that “his style is for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in
attractive faults” (Quintilianus, 10.1.129). Seneca was regarded as doubly dangerous because his style was sometimes attractive.
This reading of Seneca “has heavily coloured subsequent judgments of Seneca and his style” (Dominik, 51).
Quintilian also made an impression on Martial, the Latin poet. A short poem, published in 86,
was addressed to him, and opened, "Quintilian, greatest director of straying youth, / you are an honour, Quintilian, to the Roman
toga". However, one should not take Martial's praise at face value, since he was known for his sly and witty insults. The opening
lines are all that are usually quoted, but the rest of the poem contains lines such as "A man who longs to surpass his father’s
census rating" (6). This speaks of Quintilian's ambitious side and his drive for wealth and position.
After his death, Quintilian's influence fluctuated. He was mentioned by his pupil, Pliny, and by Juvenal, who may have been another student, “as an example of sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the
teaching profession” (Gwynn, 139). During the 3rd to 5th centuries, his influence was felt among such authors as St. Augustine of Hippo, whose discussion of signs and figurative language certainly owed something to
Quintilian, to St. Jerome, editor of the Vulgate Bible, whose
theories on education are clearly influenced by Quintilian’s. The Middle Ages saw a decline
in knowledge of his work, since existing manuscripts of Institutio Oratoria were fragmented, but the Italian
humanists revived interest in the work after the discovery of a forgotten, complete manuscript
in central Europe. The Italian poet Petrarch addressed one of his letters to the dead to
Quintilian, and for many he “provided the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education” (140). This enthusiasm for
Quintilian spread with humanism itself, reaching northern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther, the German theologian and ecclesiastical reformer, “claimed that he preferred Quintilian to
almost all authors, “in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed
most happily”” (140).
After this high point, Quintilian’s influence seems to have lessened somewhat, although he is mentioned by the English poet
Alexander Pope in his versified “An Essay on
Criticism”:
In grave Quintilian’s copious works we find
The justest rules and clearest method join’d (lines 669-70).
In addition, “he is often mentioned by writers like Montaigne and
Lessing …but he made no major contribution to intellectual history, and by the
nineteenth century he seemed to be…rather little read and rarely edited” (Gwynn, 140-1).
In more recent times, Quintilian appears to have made another upward turn. He is frequently included in anthologies of
literary criticism, and is an integral part of the history of education. He is believed to be the “earliest spokesman for a
child-centered education” (141), which is discussed above under his early childhood
education theories. As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing, and rhetoric, because of
the great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system. His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of
contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories. For example, the works of Jacques Derrida on the failure of language to impart the truth of the objects it is meant to represent
would not be possible without Quintilian’s assumptions about the function of figurative language and tropes.
References
- Bonner, Stanley F. Education in Ancient Rome: From the elder Cato to the younger Pliny. London: Methuen & Company,
Ltd., 1977.
- Clarke, M.L. Rhetoric at Rome: A Historical Survey. New York: Routledge, 1996.
- Dominik, William J. “The style is the man: Seneca, Tacitus, and Quintilian’s canon.” Roman Eloquence: Rhetoric in Society
and Literature. Ed. William J. Dominik. New York: Routledge, 1997.
- Gwynn, Aubrey S.J. Roman Education from Cicero to Quintilian. New York: Teachers College Press, 1926.
- Kennedy, George. Quintilian. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1969.
- Leitch, Vincent B., Ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
2001.
- Murphy, James J.,ed. Quintilian on the Teaching of Speaking and Writing: Translations from Books One, Two, and Ten of the
Institutio Oratoria. Edwardville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987.
- Murray, Oswyn, John Boardman, and Jasper Griffin, Eds. The Oxford History of the Roman World. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1991.
- Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius. Institutio Oratoria. Trans. H.E. Butler. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard
University press, 1920.
External links
Primary sources
- Institutio Oratoria — English translation, with indices, search engine, bibliography, and history of the text at Iowa State
- Institutio Oratoria — Latin text and English translation at LacusCurtius
- Institutio Oratoria and the disputed Declamationes Majores Latin texts at the Latin Library
Other material
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
- Detailed Outline of Institutio Oratoria: Outline
- Short biography of Quintilian: About
- Article on Quintilian from NNBD: Quintilian
- A timeline history of Institutio Oratoria and its influence: MSU
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