For more information on Ramon Llull, visit Britannica.com.
Ramon Lull
| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Ramon Llull |
| 5min Related Video: Ramon Lull |
| Biography: Raymond Lull |
A Spanish theologian, poet, and missionary to the Arabs, Raymond Lull (C. 1232-1316) was one of the foremost apologists for the Christian faith in his time.
Raymond Lull was born at Palma in Majorca. Through family connections and his own ability he began a career as a courtier, first at the court of King James I of Aragon and then at the court of King James II of Majorca. Lull's love of poetry seems to date from this period, when he came under the influence of the troubadour tradition. In 1263 he experienced a religious conversion. He left his wife (whom he had married in 1256), and began the study of Arabic and philosophy with the intention of helping to convert Moslems to Christianity and fighting Averroistic tendencies in Western philosophy.
Lull's study of philosophy and his religious experience culminated in a vision which he had on Mt. Randa in 1272. In that vision he saw a system for the reduction of all knowledge to a series of basic principles associated with the nature of God. Beginning in 1274, he described his system in a series of works, many of which bear the title The Art. He stressed that certain principles of philosophy and theology (which for Lull could never contradict each other) are self-evident and common to all sciences. By a combination of these principles (represented by symbols or numbers) one could be led to the principles of every science and even to the discovery of new truths. For Lull, this method, especially as it used symbols representative of these basic principles in various combinations to express the basic truths, was an aid for exposition and explanation or a device to aid the memory. It did not constitute a means of deducing the universal truths according to algebraic signs, as it did later for Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz.
In 1276 Lull founded the College of Miramar in Majorca, which trained men in the study of Arabic and prepared missionaries for service in Islamic lands. He made repeated missionary trips to these lands and also continued writing. Altogether, he wrote some 150 or 200 works in Latin, Arabic, and Catalan on such diverse subjects as theology, philosophy, logic, and poetry. Most of them were apologies for the faith and indicate not only his primary desire to convert the infidel but also his attempt to make philosophy subordinate to theology in order to obtain that goal. The Augustinian elements in his thought are quite strong: his rejection of the concept of creation from eternity and his adoption of the ideas of the universal hylomorphic composition of all creatures, the plurality of substantial forms in man, and the primacy of the will over the intellect.
Lull's reputation was so great that he was allowed to teach his system at the University of Paris from 1287 to 1289 without holding a degree in theology. In Paris again, from 1297 to 1299, he lectured against the adoption of pagan concepts by Christian thinkers and, in particular, the total separation of philosophy and theology. In 1298 he wrote a book on the errors of Boethius of Dacia and Siger of Brabant, two of the leading Latin Averroists at Paris, and refuted 219 propositions that had been condemned in Paris in 1277.
After missionary activity in Armenia (1302) and Africa (1306), Lull returned to Paris in 1309 and for another 2 years continued his attack on the Latin Averroists, this time on the teaching of Averroës and a contemporary exponent of Averroism, John of Jandun. During this period he wrote 17 tracts against the teaching of the Averroists.
In search for more official support for his program, Lull attended the Council of Vienne in 1311, where he presented a petition calling for the prohibition of Averroistic teaching, the beginning of another crusade, a fusion of the military orders, and the creation of a college for the study of Oriental languages. In 1314 he returned to his missionary activity in North Africa, and while preaching in Tunisia he was stoned by a crowd at Bougie and later died aboard a ship that had rescued him. His mutilated body returned to Majorca on that same ship.
Further Reading
The best general study of the life and works of Lull is E. Allison Peers, Ramon Lull: A Biography (1929). Peers is also author of a shorter, popular biography, Fool of Love: The Life of Ramon Lull (1946). Some aspects of the literary side of Lull's career were the subject of a study by Miriam T. Olabarrieta, The Influence of Ramon Lull on the Style of the Early Spanish Mystics and Santa Teresa (1963).
| Philosophy Dictionary: Ramon Lull |
Lull, Ramon (or Llull, c. 1232-1316) Spanish Franciscan philosopher and crusader. Lull's life was a relentless attempt to convert the heathen Muslims and Jews. To this end he designed his ‘Art’, published in the Ars Magna (c. 1274) and the Ars Generalis Ultima (1308). It is an elaboration of Neoplatonism, with a rigorous attempt at identifying the categories (‘dignities’) making up the absolute principles of God. These unfold into triads of agent, patient, and action. Lull shared the belief of both Jewish and Muslim thinkers of his time in secret numerical and geometrical knowledge whereby the elect can understand the nature of the cosmos. The Art of combinations is therefore regarded as a first attempt at a logically perfect language in which proofs of the correctness of Christianity may be framed. His position may have been an influence on Leibniz's later ambition to develop a characteristica universalis. Lull was killed campaigning against infidels in North Africa.
| Columbia Encyclopedia: Ramón Lull |
Lull, Ramón (rämōn' lūl), or Raymond Lully, c.1232-1316?, Catalan philosopher, b. Palma, Majorca. Of a wealthy family, he lived in ease until c.1263, when he had a religious experience and was fired with ambition to convert Muslims to Christianity. He studied Arabic language and literature and founded (1276) a college in Majorca for the study of Arabic. In 1292 he went to Tunis and challenged Muslim scholars to public debates. He was forcibly deported but made a second trip to North Africa in 1307 to combat the teachings of Averroës and again was banished. The tradition that he was stoned to death on a third trip that began in 1315 cannot be substantiated. Lull's chief work-Ars magna [the great art]-was a defense of Christianity against the teachings of Averroës. Lull maintained that philosophy (including science) was not divorced from theology and that every article of faith could be demonstrated perfectly by logic.
Bibliography
See biographies by E. A. Peers (1946, repr. 1969) and L. Brophy (1960); study by J. N. Hillgarth (1971).
| Occultism & Parapsychology Encyclopedia: Raymond Lully |
(ca. 1232-1315)
An alchemist believed to possess titanic physical and mental energy, who threw himself heart and soul into everything he did. Lully's father was a Spanish knight, who won the approval of John I, king of Arragon, and was granted an estate on the island of Majorca, where Lully was born about the year 1232. His father's royal privilege earned the very young Lully the appointment of Seneschal of the Isles, but he embarrassed his parents soon thereafter by living a life of debauchery. He consorted with women of all sorts, especially the married woman Eleonora de Castello, whom he followed wherever she went, making no attempt to conceal his illicit passion. On one occasion he actually sought the lady while she was attending Mass. And so loud was the outcry against this bold, if not sacrilegious act, that Eleonora found it essential to write in peremptory style to her cavaliere servente, and bid him desist from his present course.
The letter failed to cool the youth's ardor, but when he learned that the lady was smitten with a deadly cancer, Lully's frame of mind began to alter speedily. Sobered by the frustration of his hopes, he vowed henceforth to live differently, consecrating his days to the service of God.
Lully took his holy orders, but his active and impetuous temperament left him little inclined for monastic life. Aiming to carry the Gospel far afield to convert the followers of Mahomet, he began to study Arabic. In 1276 Lully founded Trinity College of Majorca and trained other men in Arabic and prepared missionaries for service in Islamic lands. Soon Lilly proceeded to Rome to enlist the pope's sympathy in his project. Lully failed to get the pope's support, yet, undaunted, he embarked on his own from Genoa in about 1291, and when he reached Tunis, he commenced his crusade. His ardor resulted in fierce persecution and ultimate banishment, so he returned for a while to Europe, visiting Paris, Naples, and Pisa, and exhorting all good Christians to aid his beloved enterprise.
In 1308 he went to Africa, and at Algiers he made a host of converts, yet was once more forced to flee for his life before the angry Moslems. He traveled to Tunis, thinking to escape from there to Italy, but his former activities in the town were remembered, and consequently he was seized and thrown into prison. Here he languished for a long time, preaching the gospel at every opportunity that presented itself. At last some Genoese merchants procured his release, and so Lully sailed back to Italy. In Rome he worked strenuously to get the pope's support for a well-equipped foreign mission, but after he failed, he rested briefly in his native Majorca, then returned to Tunis.
Proclaiming his presence publicly, he had scarcely begun preaching when he was savagely attacked, left lying on the seashore, his assailants imagining him dead. He was still breathing, however, when some Genoese found him, and they carried him to a ship and set sail for Majorca. But the zealot did not rally, and he died in sight of his home June 30, 1315.
Lully's proselytizing ardor made his name familiar throughout Europe, and while many people regarded him as a heretic for undertaking a mission without the pope's sanction, others admired him so much that they sought to make him a saint. He was eventually canonized as a martyr, and a mausoleum was erected to him. Meanwhile he also attained some notoriety as an alchemist and was reported to have made a large sum of gold for the English king. There is really no proof that he ever visited Britain, but the remaining part of the story holds a certain significance. It is said that Lully made the money on the strict understanding that it should be utilized for equipping a large and powerful band of missionaries. There is some reason to believe that he thought to employ his alchemical skill on behalf of his missionary object. Possibly he approached some European sovereign with this goal in view, thus giving rise to the tradition about his dealings with the English monarch.
Lully's writings include a number of works on alchemy, most notably Alchimia Magic Naturalis, De Aquis Super Accurtationes, De Secretis Medicina Magna and De Conservatione Vitoe. It is interesting to find that several of these won considerable popularity and were repeatedly reprinted, while as late as 1673, two volumes of Opera Alchima purporting to be written by him were issued at London. Five years before this, a biography by De Vernon had been published at Paris, while at a later date a German historian of chemistry named Gruelin referred to Lully as a scientist of exceptional skill and mentioned him as the first man to distill rosemary oil.
Sources:
Waite, Arthur E. Raymond Lully, Illuminated Doctor, Alchemist, and Christian Mystic. London, 1922. Reprint, London, 1939. Reprint, New York: David McKay, 1940.
| Wikipedia: Ramon Llull |
For other uses, see Ramon Llull (disambiguation).
| Ramon Llull | |
|---|---|
 Ramon Llull |
|
| Born | 1232 Palma de Mallorca, Crown of Aragon |
| Died | June 29, 1315 Palma de Mallorca, Majorca |
| Occupation | Writer, philosopher |
Ramon Llull (1232[1] – June 29, 1315) (anglicised Raymond Lully, Raymond Lull, in Latin Raimundus or Raymundus Lullus or Lullius, in Spanish Raimundo Lulio) was a Majorcan writer and philosopher. He wrote the first major work of Catalan literature. Recently surfaced manuscripts show him to have anticipated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory. He is sometimes considered a pioneer of computation theory, especially given his influence on Gottfried Leibniz. Llull is well known also as a glossator of Roman Law. He has been beatified by the Catholic Church and carries the title "Blessed".
Contents |
Early life
Llull was born into a wealthy family in Palma, the capital of the new Kingdom of Majorca founded by James I to integrate politically the recently conquered territories of the Balearic Islands (nowadays part of Spain) in the Crown of Aragon.
He was well educated, and became the tutor of James II of Aragon. He was conversant in Latin, Catalan, Occitan (both the same language at the time and considered "popular Latin") and Arabic.
By 1257 he had married Blanca Picany and they had two children, Domènec and Magdalena; yet despite his family he lived as before, a troubadour's life. About this time he became the seneschal (the administrative head of the royal household) to the future King James II of Majorca.
A key event in his early life was his religious conversion. In the Vita coaetanea, an "autobiography" of Ramon Llull which he dictated circa 1311, there is a description of his conversion. "Ramon, while still a young man and seneschal to the king of Majorca, was very given to composing worthless songs and poems and to doing other licentious things. One night he was sitting beside his bed, about to compose and write in his vulgar tongue a song to a lady whom he loved with a foolish love; and as he began to write this song, he looked to his right and saw our Lord Jesus Christ on the cross, as if suspended in midair." The vision came to him five times in all.[2]
Very much to the contrary, Schopenhauer, the pessimistic philosopher, in 1819 gave another description of Llull's religious conversion. "Hence men who have led a very adventurous life under the pressure of passions, men such as kings, heroes, or adventurers, have often been seen suddenly to change, resort to resignation and penance, and become hermits and monks. To this class belong all genuine accounts of conversion, for instance, that of Raymond Lull, who had long wooed a beautiful woman, was at last admitted to her chamber, and was looking forward to the fulfillment of all his desires, when, opening her dress, she showed him her bosom terribly eaten away with cancer. From that moment, as if he had looked into hell, he was converted; leaving the court of the King of Majorca, he went into the wilderness to do penance." He became a hermit for the next nine years.[3]
In 1265 he had a religious epiphany, and became a tertiary Franciscan. His first major work Art Abreujada d'Atrobar Veritat (The Abbreviated Art of Finding Truth) was written in Catalan and then translated into Latin. He wrote treatises on alchemy and botany, Ars Magna, and Llibre de meravelles. He wrote the romantic novel Blanquerna, the first major work of literature written in Catalan, and perhaps the first European novel. Llull pressed for the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Spain for the purpose of converting Muslims to Christianity. He even wrote some books in Arabic.[4]
Ars generalis ultima (Ars Magna)
Around 1275, Llull designed a method, which he first published in full in his Ars generalis ultima or Ars magna (the "The Ultimate General Art", published in 1305), of combining religious and philosophical attributes selected from a number of lists. It is believed that Llull's inspiration for the Ars magna came from observing Arab astrologers use a device called a zairja.[citation needed]
It was intended as a debating tool for winning Muslims to the Christian faith through logic and reason. Through his detailed analytical efforts, Llull built an in-depth theological reference by which a reader could enter in an argument or question about the Christian faith. The reader would then turn to the appropriate index and page to find the correct answer.
Llull also invented numerous 'machines' for the purpose. One method is now called the Lullian Circle, each of which consisted of two or more paper discs inscribed with alphabetical letters or symbols that referred to lists of attributes. The discs could be rotated individually to generate a large number of combinations of ideas. A number of terms, or symbols relating to those terms, were laid around the full circumference of the circle. They were then repeated on an inner circle which could be rotated. These combinations were said to show all possible truth about the subject of the circle. Llull based this on the notion that there were a limited number of basic, undeniable truths in all fields of knowledge, and that we could understand everything about these fields of knowledge by studying combinations of these elemental truths.
The method was an early attempt to use logical means to produce knowledge. Llull hoped to show that Christian doctrines could be obtained artificially from a fixed set of preliminary ideas. For example, one of the tables listed the attributes of God: goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth and glory. Llull knew that all believers in the monotheistic religions - whether Jews, Muslims or Christians - would agree with these attributes, giving him a firm platform from which to argue.
The idea was developed further by Giordano Bruno in the 16th century, and by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century for investigations into the philosophy of science. Leibniz gave Llull's idea the name ars combinatoria, by which it is now often known. Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science.
There is an episode in Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (II:III:V; 1721), where the hero is shown a mechanical engine that generates knowledge by combining words at random. Swift does not mention Llull by name, but that passage can only be a parody of his method.
Llull was vocally opposed by the Grand Inquisitor of Aragon, Nicolau Aymerich. As a result, Pope Gregory XI banned some of his writings.
Missions
First mission
Llull traveled through Europe to interest popes, kings and princes in establishing special colleges to prepare future missionaries to convert the infidels of Tunis to Christianity. In 1285, he embarked on his first mission to North Africa but was violently expelled from Tunis. On his return, Llull began to preach for a unification of the three monotheistic faiths—Judaism, Christianity and Islam[citation needed]--which together, he hoped, would be able to defeat the Asian invaders then threatening Europe and the Middle East.
Llull became a Secular Franciscan, but remained a lay person. He was certainly influenced by the doctrine Francis of Assisi, but also by the religious style of the Dominican Order. Despite what is generally believed, he at no point in his life entered the Franciscan Order to become a priest.
In 1297 Llull met Duns Scotus, after which he was given the nickname Doctor Illuminatus.[citation needed]
Second mission
Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1304, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.
Third mission, Council, and death
In the early 14th century, Llull visited North Africa on a reconnaissance mission for a crusade being planned by the Pope.[5] He returned in 1308, reporting that the conquest should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. Llull finally achieved his goal of linguistic education at major universities in 1311 when the Council of Vienne ordered the creation of chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean at the universities of Bologna, Oxford, Paris, Salamanca, and at the Papal Court. At the age of 82, in 1314, Raymond traveled again to North Africa and an angry crowd of Muslims stoned him in the city of Bougie or Béjaïa in present-day northern Algeria. Genoese merchants took him back to Mallorca where he died at home in Palma the next year.[6] It is said that before evangelizing he would openly denounce Islam in areas dominated by Islam.[4]
Reputation after death
Posthumously, Llull became celebrated as a great alchemist, although he had been opposed to occult beliefs. At one time he was credited with discovering ether, in about 1275, although there is no contemporary evidence for this.
His rationalistic mysticism was formally condemned by Pope Gregory XI in 1376 and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV, though he himself remained in good standing with the Church. Later, the Catholic Church beatified Llull, when his cult was confirmed in 1858 by Pope Pius IX. He has not been canonized, and while he has been called Doctor Illuminatus, Llull is not one of the 33 Doctors of the Church.
Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were set up at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as la llengua de Llull, as other languages might be referred to as la langue de Molière (French) or la lengua de Cervantes (Castilian).
The logo of the Spanish Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas ("Higher Council of Scientific Research") is Llull's Tree of Science. Ramon Llull University, a private university established in Barcelona in 1990, is named for the philosopher.
Mysticism and the occult
Ramon Llull also had a strong mystical side, instantiated in his work The Book of the Lover and the Beloved, written in order to illuminate weary, sterile souls. He was also interested in, and wrote about, astrology.
A synthesis of Llull's work was made by his disciple Thomas Le Myésier, in his Electorium. In the early modern period Bernard de Lavinheta connected Llull with contemporary hermeticism.
Mathematics and statistics
With the 2001 discovery of his lost manuscripts Ars notandi, Ars eleccionis, and Alia ars eleccionis, Llull is given credit for discovering the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, which Jean-Charles de Borda and Marquis de Condorcet independently discovered centuries later.[7] The terms Llull winner and Llull loser are ideas in contemporary voting systems studies that are named in honor of Llull. Also, Llull is recognized as pioneer of computation theory, especially due to his great influence on Gottfried Leibniz.
Modern allusions and trivia
 |
This "In popular culture" section may contain too many minor or trivial references. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances, and remove trivia references. (October 2009) |
Martin Gardner has written extensively about Llull. His analyses can be found in Logic Machines and Diagrams and Science - Good, Bad and Bogus.
Llull, now going under the name 'Cole Hawlings' and revealed to be immortal, is a major character in The Box of Delights, the celebrated children's novel by poet John Masefield. In the BBC TV adaptation of 1984 he was played by Patrick Troughton.
Llull appears in Chapter VII "The Camp of Pallas" of Doctor Mirabilis by James Blish.
In the DC comic book series The Sandman, one of the characters, a writer named Richard Madoc, puts forth the idea of writing a story about Paracelsus and Raymond Llull being the same person. This is, in real life, highly unlikely, given that they lived a century or more apart.
In Marvel Comics' anthology title Marvel Comics Presents #143 (December 1993), Llull's Ars Magna, animated by magic, became a foe of the Scarlet Witch [1].
Paul Auster refers to Llull (as Raymond Lull) in his memoir The Invention of Solitude in the second part, The Book of Memory.
Works
Llull is known to have written at least 265 works, including:
- The Book of the Lover and the Beloved
- Blanquerna (a novel; 1283) [2]
- Desconort (on the superiority of reason)
- Tree of Science (1295)
- Tractatus novus de astronomia
- Ars Magna (The Great Art) (1305) or Ars Generalis Ultima (The Ultimate General Art)
- Ars Brevis (The Short Art; an abbreviated version of the Ars Magna)
- Llibre de meravelles
- Practica compendiosa
- Liber de Lumine (The Book of Light)
- Ars Infusa (The Inspired Art)
- Book of Propositions
- Liber Chaos (The Book of Chaos)
- Book of the Seven Planets
- Liber Proverbiorum (Book of Proverbs)
- Book on the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit
- Ars electionis [3] (on voting)
- Artifitium electionis personarum [4] (on voting)
- Ars notatoria
- Introductoria Artis demonstrativae
- Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men
- Libre qui es de l'ordre de cavalleria (The Book of the Order of Chivalry written between 1279-1283)
- Le Livre des mille proverbes (2008), ISBN : 978-2-9531917-0-7, Éditions de la Merci, editions@orange.fr
About another 400 works are doubtfully or spuriously attributed to him.
Bibliography
- Anthony Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus. A Ramon Llull Reader (Princeton University 1985), includes The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men, The Book of the Lover and the Beloved, The Book of the Beasts, and Ars brevis; as well as Bonner's "Historical Background and Life" at 1-44, "Llull's Thought" at 45-56, "Llull's Influence: The History of Lullism" at 57-71.
- Antonio Monserat Quintana, Antonio, La Visión Lulliana del Mundo Derecho (Palma de Mallorca: Institut d'Estudis Baleàrics 1987).
- J. N. Hillgarth, Ramon Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France (Oxford University 1971).
- Lorenzo Riber, Raimundo Lulio (Barcelona: Editorial Labor 1935, 1949).
- William Theodore Aquila Barber, Raymond Lull, the illuminated doctor : a study in mediaeval missions, London : C.H. Kelly, 1903.
- Samuel Marinus Zwemer, Raymund Lull, first missionary to the Moslems, New York and London : Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1902; reprinted by Diggory Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1846853012
Notes
- ^ Born 1232 per Mark D. Johnston in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge, 1998. Older sources (such as versions of Encyclopædia Britannica at least up to 1955, give 1235; the current Britannica gives 1232/33.
- ^ Bonner, "Historical Background and Life" (an annotated Vita coaetanea) at 10-11, in Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus (1985).
- ^ Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation (1819), Vol. I, § 68, as translated by E.F.J.Payne (The Falcon's Wing Press 1958, reprint by Dover, New York, 1966) at 394-395. Schopenhauer cites to the Lutheran minister Johann Jakob Brucker's Critical History of Philosophy [Hist.Philos.], Book IV, Part I [pars I], page 10. While neither Brucker nor Schopenhauer claimed special expertise in Spanish studies or literature, and the details are suspect, Schopenhauer's theory in general runs parallel to other accounts, e.g., the story told by St. Augustine in his Confessions.
- ^ a b Covenant Worldwide - Ancient & Medieval Church History
- ^ The Vita coaetanea [Contemporary Life] (circa 1311), the "autobiography" of Llull, does not mention such motive, but rather infers Llull's misionery quest, describing his high profile public preaching in the main square of the city of Bougie, the edgy adverse reaction, his quick arrest, beating, likely execution, intervention by Genoese and Catalans, six months in jail, and eventual release. Bonner, "Historical Background and Life" (the Vita coaetanea augmented and annotated) at 10-11, 34-37, in Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus (1985).
- ^ Bonner states that his journey was to Tunis not Bougie, and dates it from autumn of 1314 until at least December of 1315 [42-43]. Bonner also notes that, according to modern scholarship, it was in the mid 15th century that "the legend of Llull having been martyred in Bougie spread." [44,n138]; Llull was buried at the church of San Francisco in Palma by March of 1316 [43-44]. Riber states that the circumstances of his death remain a mystery [220-221]. Zwemer, the Protestant missionery and academic, accepted the story of martyrdom, as did the article in the Catholic Encyclopedia published in 1911 (see links in the Bibliography). Bonner gives as a reason for Llull's journey to Tunis the information that its ruler was interested in Christianity falsely given to the kings of Sicily and Aragon [42-43]. Riber, Raimunco Lulio (1935, 1949); Bonner, "Historical Background and Life" in his Doctor Illuminatus (1985).
- ^ G. Hägele and F. Pukelsheim (2001). "Llull's writings on electoral systems". Studia Lulliana 41: 3–38. http://www.math.uni-augsburg.de/stochastik/pukelsheim/2001a.html.
External links
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Raimundus Lullus |
- Ramon Llull at the AELC (Association of Writers in Catalan Language). Webpage in Catalan, English and Spanish.
- "Ramon Llull". lletrA-UOC - Open University of Catalonia. http://www.uoc.edu/lletra/noms/rllull/index.html. (Catalan) English version
- Site with fulltexts of Raymond Lull's books. Also music based on Lullian arts.
- English translations of lullian works, freeware version of Ars Magna
- Ramon Llull Database, University of Barcelona
- Patron Saints Index
- Catholic Encyclopedia article of 1911
- Ramon Llull at Lletra, espai virtual de literatura catalana) (Catalan)
- Càtedra Ramon Llull (in Catalan)
- Blessed Raymond Lull
- The Ultimate General Art
- Esteve Jaulent:The Theory of Knowledge and the Unity of Man according to Ramon Llull
|
|||||||||||
This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
Learn More
 | Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples |
| Miroirs des princes |
| social choice |
 | Who were inspired by the ramones? Read answer... |
| Are the ramones jewish? Read answer... |
| Who is Ramon Magsaysay? Read answer... |
Help us answer these
 | Who is ramon reyes? |
| Why was the lulling stone roman villa built? |
| Who is ramon orlina? |
Post a question - any question - to the WikiAnswers community:
Copyrights:
 |
 | Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. © 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Biography. © 2006 through a partnership of Answers Corporation. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Philosophy Dictionary. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Copyright © 1994, 1996, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Columbia Encyclopedia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/. Read more |
|
| Occultism & Parapsychology Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. Copyright © 2001 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
 |
| Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Ramon Llull". Read more |
Related answers
- What is a lull?
- What do lulled mean?
- Who are the ramones?
- Where are the ramones from?
- Who is Ramon Villa?
- Who is Ramon Sheffield?
ADVERTISEMENT
