Ivor Armstrong Richards (26 February, 1893 in
Sandbach, Cheshire – 7
September, 1979 in Cambridge) was an influential English
literary critic and rhetorician. His books,
especially The Meaning of Meaning, Principles of Literary
Criticism, Practical Criticism, and The Philosophy of Rhetoric, were among the founding documents of the
New Criticism, and most of the eminent New Critics were Richards's students. Since the New
Criticism, at least in English-speaking countries, is often thought of as the beginning
of modern literary criticism, Richards is one of the founders of the contemporary study of literature in English.
Biographical sketch
Beginnings
Richards began his career without formal training in literature at all; Richards studied philosophy ("moral sciences") at Cambridge University. This
may have led to one of Richards' assertions for the shape of literary study in the 20th century -- that literary study cannot and
should not be undertaken as a specialization in itself, but instead studied alongside a cognate field (philosophy, psychology,
rhetoric, etc.).
Richards' earliest teaching appointments were in the equivalent of what might be called "adjunct faculty" positions;
Magdalene College at Cambridge would not pay a salary to Richards to teach
the new and untested field of English literature. Instead, Richards collected tuition directly from the students as they entered
the classroom each week. In 1926 he married Dorothy Pilley Richards, whom he had
met on a climbing holiday in Wales.
Influence
Richards served as mentor and teacher to other prominent critics, most notably William
Empson and F.R. Leavis. Critics primarily influenced by his writings also included
Cleanth Brooks and Allen Tate. Later New Critics who
refined their formalist approach to New Criticism by actively rejecting his psychological emphasis included, besides Brooks and
Tate, John Crowe Ransom, W.K.
Wimsatt, R.P. Blackmur, and Murray
Krieger. They all admitted the value of his seminal ideas but sought to salvage what they considered his most useful
assumptions from the theoretical excesses they felt he brought to bear in his criticism.
Contributions
Richards' life and influence can be divided into periods, which correspond roughly to his intellectual interests. In many of
these achievements, Richards found a collaborator in C. K. Ogden.
Collaboration with Ogden
An assessment of Richards' work and biography requires mention of C. K. Ogden, Richards' collaborator on three of the most
important projects of Richards' life and work.
In Foundations of Aesthetics (co-authored by Richards, Ogden & James Woods), Richards maps out the principles of
aesthetic reception which lay at the root of Richards' literary theory (the principle of "harmony" or balance of competing
psychological impulses). Additionally, the structure of the work (surveying multiple, competing definitions of the term
"aesthetic") prefigures his work on multiple definition in Coleridge on Imagination, in Basic Rules of Reason and
in Mencius on the Mind.
In The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon
Thought and of the Science of Symbolism, Richards and Odgen work out the triadic theory of semiotics which, in its dependence
on psychological theories, prefigures the importance of psychology in Richards independently authored literary criticism.
Additionally, many current semioticians (including Eco) salute this work as a vast improvement on the dyadic semiotics of
Saussure.
Finally, in works like The General Basic English Dictionary and Times of India Guide to Basic English, Richards
and Ogden developed their most internationally influential project -- the Basic English program for the development of an
international language based with an 850-word vocabulary. Richards' own travels, especially to China, made him an effective
advocate for this international program. At Harvard, he took the next step, integrating new media (television, especially) into
his international pedagogy.
Aesthetics and literary criticism
Works
- The Foundations of Aesthetics (George Allen and Unwin: London, 1922). Co-authored with C. K. Ogden and James Wood. 2nd
edition with revised preface, (Lear Publishers: New York 1925).
- Principles of Literary Criticism (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner: London, 1924; New York, 1925). Subsequent editions:
London 1926 (with two new appendices), New York 1926 (Same as London 1926, but with new preface, dated New York, April 1926),
1928 (with rev preface).
- Science and Poetry (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner: London, 1926). A reset edition was published in the same year in New
York, by W. W. Norton, 1926. Second edition, revised and enlarged: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner: London, 1935. There is no known
US publication of the 2nd Edition, however the text of the 1935 edition was reset, with a 'Preface', 'Commentary', and an
additional essay, 'How Does a Poem Know When it is Finished' (1963), as Poetries and Sciences (W. W. Norton: New York and
London, 1970).
- Practical Criticism (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner: London, 1929). Subsequent editions: 1930 (rev).
Influence
Richards is often mislabeled as the father of the New Criticism, largely because of the
influence of Principles and of Practical Criticism. Principles was a major critical breakthrough in having
offered thirty-five insightful chapters regarding various topics relevant to literary criticism inclusive of such topics as form,
value, rhythm, coenesthesia,literary infectiousness, allusiveness, divergent readings, and belief. His next book,Practical
Criticism, was just as influential as an empirical study of inferior literary response. Richards removed authorial and
contextual information from thirteen poems, including one by Longfellow and four by decidedly marginal poets. Then he assigned
their interpretation to undergraduates at Cambridge University in order to ascertain the most likely impediments to an adequate
response. This approach had a startling impact at the time in demonstrating the depth and variety of misreadings to be expected
of otherwise intelligent college students as well as the population at large.
In using this method, Richards did not advance a new hermeneutic. Instead, he was doing something unprecedented in the field
of literary studies: he was interrogating the interpretive process itself by analyzing the self-reported interpretive work of
students. To that end, his work necessitated a closer interpretation of the literary text in and of itself and provided what
seems a historical opening to the work done in English Education and Composition [Flower & Hayes] as they engage empirical
studies. Connected with this effort were his seminal theories of metaphor, value, tone, stock response, incipient action,
pseudo-statement, and ambiguity, the latter as expounded by William Empson, his former graduate student.
Richards was primarily invested in understanding literary interpretation from an individual psychological perspective. He read
deeply in psychological theory of the day, finding the psychological contributions of Ward, Puffer, and Urban the most useful for
his own work. While his impulse theory of consciousness as well as his theories of poetic interpretation and poetic language have
been surpassed many decades ago, his initial effort to ground a theory of interpretation in both aesthetic theory and the
theoretical language of psychology shaped 20th century literary studies into what it is today.
Rhetoric, semiotics and prose interpretation
Works
- The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. Co-authored
with C. K. Ogden. With an introduction by J. P. Postgate, and supplementary
essays by Bronislaw Malinowski, 'The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages',
and F. G. Crookshank, 'The Importance of a Theory of Signs and a Critique of Language in the
Study of Medicine'. London and New York, 1923.
- 1st: 1923 (Preface Date: Jan. 1923)
- 2nd: 1927 (Preface Date: June 1926)
- 3rd: 1930 (Preface Date: Jan. 1930)
- 4th: 1936 (Preface Date: May 1936)
- 5th: 1938 (Preface Date: June 1938)
- 8th: 1946 (Preface Date: May 1946)
- NY: 1989 (with a preface by Umberto Eco)
- Mencius on the Mind: Experiments in Multiple Definition (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.: London; Harcourt,
Brace: New York, 1932).
- Coleridge on Imagination (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner: London, 1934; New York, 1935). Later editions: NY and London
1950 (Revised with new preface), Bloomington 1960 (Reprints 1950, with new foreword by Richards and introduction by
K. Raine).
- The Philosophy of Rhetoric (Oxford University Press: New York and London, 1936).
- Interpretation in Teaching (Routledge & Kegan Paul: London; Harcourt, Brace: New York, 1938). Subsequent editions:
1973 (with 'Retrospect').
- Basic in Teaching: East and West (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner: London, 1935).
- How To Read a Page: A Course in Effective Reading, With an Introduction to a Hundred Great Words (W. W. Norton: New
York, 1942; Routledge & Kegan Paul: London, 1943). Subsequent editions: 1959 (Beacon Press: Boston. With new
'Introduction').
- The Wrath of Achilles: The Iliad of Homer, Shortened and in a New Translation (W. W. Norton: New York, 1950; Routledge
& Kegan Paul: London, 1951).
- Speculative Instruments: (Routledge & Kegan Paul: London, 1955).
- So Much Nearer: Essays toward a World English (Harcourt, Brace & World: New York, 1960, 1968). Includes the
important essay, "The Future of Poetry."
- Complementarities: Uncollected Essays, ed. by John Paul Russo (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts,
1976).
- Times of India Guide to Basic English (Bombay: The Times of India Press),
1938; Odgen, C.K. & Richards, I.A.
External links
- Practical
Criticism The Open Archive's copy of the first edition, 2nd impression, 1930; downloadable in DjVu, PDF and text
formats.
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