Richter scale

The Richter magnitude scale, also known as the local magnitude (M_L) scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude of the largest displacement from zero on a Wood–Anderson torsion seismometer output. So, for example, an earthquake that measures 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times larger than one that measures 4.0. The effective limit of measurement for local magnitude M_L is about 6.8.

Though still widely used, the Richter scale has been superseded by the moment magnitude scale, which gives generally similar values.

The energy release of an earthquake, which closely correlates to its destructive power, scales with the ³⁄₂ power of the shaking amplitude. Thus, a difference in magnitude of 1.0 is equivalent to a factor of 31.6 ( = (10^1.0)^{(3 / 2)}) in the energy released; a difference of magnitude of 2.0 is equivalent to a factor of 1000 ( = (10^2.0)^{(3 / 2)} ) in the energy released.^[1]

Development

Developed in 1935 by Charles Richter in partnership with Beno Gutenberg, both of the California Institute of Technology, the scale was firstly intended to be used only in a particular study area in California, and on seismograms recorded on a particular instrument, the Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer. Richter originally reported values to the nearest quarter of a unit, but decimal numbers were used later. His motivation for creating the local magnitude scale was to separate the vastly larger number of smaller earthquakes from the few larger earthquakes observed in California at the time.

His inspiration was the apparent magnitude scale used in astronomy to describe the brightness of stars and other celestial objects. Richter arbitrarily chose a magnitude 0 event to be an earthquake that would show a maximum combined horizontal displacement of one micrometre on a seismograph recorded using a Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the earthquake epicenter. This choice was intended to prevent negative magnitudes from being assigned. However, the Richter scale has no upper or lower limit, and sensitive modern seismographs now routinely record quakes with negative magnitudes.

Because M_L is derived from measurements taken from a single, band-limited seismograph, its values saturate when the earthquake is larger than 6.8.^[2] To overcome this shortcoming, Gutenberg and Richter later developed a magnitude scales based on surface waves, surface wave magnitude M_S, and another based on body waves, body wave magnitude m_b.^[3] M_S and m_b can still saturate when the earthquake is big enough.

These traditional magnitude scales have been superseded by the implementation of methods for estimating the seismic moment and its associated moment magnitude scale, although still widely used because they can be calculated quickly.

Richter magnitudes

The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs (adjustments are included to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquake). The original formula is:^[4]

where A is the maximum excursion of the Wood-Anderson seismograph, the empirical function A₀ depends only on the epicentral distance of the station, delta. In practice, readings from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with station-specific corrections to obtain the M_L value.

Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; in terms of energy, each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 31.6 times the amount of energy released.

Events with magnitudes of about 4.6 or greater are strong enough to be recorded by any of the seismographs in the world, given that the seismograph's sensors are not located in an earthquake's shadow.

The following describes the typical effects of earthquakes of various magnitudes near the epicenter. This table should be taken with extreme caution, since intensity and thus ground effects depend not only on the magnitude, but also on the distance to the epicenter, the depth of the earthquake's focus beneath the epicenter, and geological conditions (certain terrains can amplify seismic signals).

(Based on U.S. Geological Survey documents.)^[5]

Great earthquakes occur once a year, on average. The largest recorded earthquake was the Great Chilean Earthquake of May 22, 1960 which had a magnitude (M_W) of 9.5.^[6]

The following table lists the approximate energy equivalents in terms of TNT explosive force^[7] - though note that the energy here is that of the underground energy release (ie a small atomic bomb blast will not simply cause light shaking of indoor items) rather than the overground energy release; the majority of energy transmission of an earthquake is not transmitted to and through the surface, but is instead dissipated into the crust and other subsurface structures.

See also

• Earthquake
• Seismic scale
• Moment magnitude scale
• Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale
• Order of magnitude

References

External links

• IRIS Real-time Seismic Monitor of the Earth
• USGS: magnitude and intensity comparison
• USGS: Earthquake Magnitude Policy
• USGS: 2000-2006 Earthquakes worldwide
• USGS: 1990-1999 Earthquakes worldwide
• Alaska Railroad Earthquake with a table of yield-to-magnitude relations.