Romain Rolland

For more information on Romain Rolland, visit Britannica.com.

(b Clamecy, 29 Jan 1886; d Vézelay, 30 Dec 1944). French man of letters and writer on music. He studied in Paris and Rome, became director of the music school of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales (1902-11) and in 1903 was appointed to the first chair of music history at the Sorbonne, retiring in 1913 because of ill-health. As historian, critic, biographer, novelist, playwright and polemicist, Rolland ranged wide. He took a personal view of history of a rigorously moral tone; this gave a distinctive flavour to his biographies of Beethoven (of whom he wrote a single-volume life and a sevenvolume study) and Handel and to his numerous articles. He saw history primarily in terms of the noble, superior soul; because of music's universality, profundity and spontaneity, he believed it was often the first to give expression to fundamental changes in society. In this spirit he composed his vast ‘roman fleuve’ Jean-Christophe (1904-12) using the life of a fictional composer as a symbol around which to synthesize his convictions about the nature, history and moral significance of music, its racial characteristics and its function.

The French writer Romain Rolland (1866-1944) was the author of many works, all reflecting the conscience of a great humanist.

Romain Rolland was born on Jan. 29, 1866, in Clamecy (Burgundy). His family moved to Paris in 1880, where he graduated from the École Normale Supérieure in 1889 in history. During these years, disillusioned by the decadence of French society, having lost faith in Catholicism, but still looking for ideals, he turned toward the pantheism of Baruch Spinoza. In 1889 he arrived in Rome, where he discovered the Italian Renaissance and met Malvida von Meysenburg, who introduced him to the heroes of revolution and German romanticism; these various influences appear for the first time in his two unpublished dramas - Empedocle and Orsino.

Rolland returned to Paris in 1891, where he slowly turned toward the incipient socialism. In 1898, involved in the polemic aroused by the Dreyfus Affair, he wrote Les Loups (The Wolves), a play that transposed the case to 1793 and attempted to present objectively the arguments of both sides. The success of Les Loups encouraged him to write a whole cycle of plays on the French Revolution, whose spirit, he thought, must be carried into the future; among them were Danton (1900) and Le Quatorze Juillet (1902; The Fourteenth of July). Believing in the revolutionary role of culture, he wrote a series of essays in Le Théâtre du peuple (1903; The People's Theater).

In 1904 Rolland taught at the Sorbonne, inaugurating a course on the history of music. From 1904 to 1912 he wrote Jean-Christophe, a novel which shows the confrontation between an artist and a decadent society. Built like a symphony, Jean-Christophe is an affirmation of the German musical genius. Colas Breugnon (1914) is, on the contrary, a novel whose humor reminds one of François Rabelais. Meanwhile Rolland produced a series of biographies: Beethoven (1903), Michel-Ange (1906), and Tolstoi (1911).

Rolland spent the war years in Switzerland. He accused both France and Germany in a series of essays, Au dessus de la melée (Above the Battle). After the fall of Europe, only the Russian Revolution gave him some hope for the future. Opposing violence, he did not, however, join the Communist party. Throughout the 1920s he called for the unity of all truth-searching minds, regardless of political opinion, in Déclaration d'indépendance de l'esprit (1919; Declaration of the Independence of the Mind). His belief in nonviolence made him praise the Gandhian idea of revolution through his several books on Hindu thought.

Rolland meanwhile came back to his plays on the French Revolution; the last one was Robespierre (1939). In 1933 he published another novel, L'Â me enchantée (The Enchanted Soul), dealing with the problem of political action. Moved perhaps by the mounting fascism, he adhered more closely to communism; several essays show this evolution, in particular, Quinze ans de combat (Fifteen Years of Struggle).

In 1938 Rolland settled in Vézelay, where he composed his Mémoires and Le Voyage intérieur (Journey inside Himself), his spiritual autobiography. He died on Dec. 30, 1944.

Further Reading

Stefan Zweig, Romain Rolland: The Man and His Work, translated by Eden and Cedar Paul (1921), is one of the best studies but necessarily incomplete. William T. Starr, the specialist on Rolland who published the detailed and very useful A Critical Bibliography of the Published Writings of Romain Rolland (1950), also wrote Romain Rolland: One against All - A Biography (1971), based on Rolland's works, letters, notes, and diary.

Additional Sources

Kastinger Riley, Helene M., Romain Rolland, Berlin: Colloquium-Verlag, 1979.

Rolland, Romain (Edme Paul-Émile) (1866-1944). French novelist, playwright, biographer, musicologist, and Nobel Prize winner (1915). As a student in Rome he was strongly influenced by the German socialist Malwida von Meysenbug. Her ideas, together with the teaching of Tolstoy, largely shaped his political, humanitarian, and internationalist ideas. These were tested by World War I, when his essay, Au-dessus de la mêlée (1915), with its appeal to the intellectuals of France and Germany to refuse war and strive for peace, made him many enemies. Later, he was to evolve towards a distinctly individual mixture of Marxism and oriental mysticism.

In the first 45 years of the century Rolland published biographies of Beethoven (1903), Michelangelo (1908), Tolstoy (1911), Gandhi (1924), Ramakrishna (1929), Vivekananda (1930), and Péguy (1944). His writings on music included a history of European opera before Lully and Scarlatti, and a six-volume study of Beethoven's work. His best-known plays were organized into two trilogies, Le Théâtre de la Révolution (1909) and Les Tragédies de la foi (1913), largely inspired by the ‘popular theatre’ ideas of Maurice Pottecher. His main novels are Jean-Christophe (1904-12), Colas Breugnon (1919), Clérambault (1920), and L'Âme enchantée (1922-33).

[John Cruickshank]

1866-1944

The French author Romain Edmé PaulÉmile Rolland was born on January 26, 1866, in Clamecy, a small town in Burgundy, and died on December 30, 1944, in the old village of Vézelay.

Freud held Rolland in high esteem for his insight into the mind of a child, and he called The Enchanted Soul "a most beautiful novel." André Malraux thought Rolland was "the last of the great French romantic novelists." Quite unlike Freud, Rolland was musical to the core and the seven volumes of his Beethoven the Creator were published between 1928 and 1943. He was awarded the 1915 Nobel Prize for literature for his novel Jean-Christophe.

A politically engaged intellectual from the time of the Dreyfus Affair at the turn of the twentieth century, Rolland aroused Freud's admiration for the anti-war stance he took in 1914 with his essay "Au-dessus de la mêlée" (Above the Battle), in which he argued for international brotherhood instead of mutual destruction. Rolland denounced Hitler as early as 1933 and condemned Jewish persecution as a "crime against humanity." Indeed, Rolland declined the Goethe Prize after the Nazis came to power. After lending critical support to the Soviet Union as a part of anti-Hiterlian strategy, Rolland's idealism moved him for a time in the direction of non-critical communist fellow-traveler. Rolland's correspondence shows his introspective side and his value as an eyewitness to history. (Duchatelet, 1976).

Aware of trends in German culture, Rolland read Freud as early as 1909. The two men would exchange about twenty letters from 1923 to 1936; Freud's first communication was written the same week he was diagnosed with cancer of the jaw. Rolland visited Freud only once, on May 14, 1924.

The highly idealized intellectual and emotional relationship between Freud and Rolland suggests a veritable epistolary transference that served Freud as a sounding board for self-analysis during his later years, and several of his major works found their point of departure in exchanges with his "venerated" alter ego.

Despite differences of background and culture, powerful affinities joined these two romantic heroes. Freud admired the poet and "apostle of love for mankind" (Freud, 1960), while Rolland viewed Freud as a "conquistador" of the new world of the mind. In Spinoza they shared a common thread of influence—Rolland, the Christian without a church, inspired by "the enlightened Spinoza" and Freud the "Jewish heretic." Both were critical of the dogmas of organized religion but differed over the role of religious feeling. Rolland reproached Freud for not having analyzed the "oceanic feeling" associated with religiosity. Rolland's pantheism led him to view mysticism, by contrast, as a path to knowledge of the human mind; this represents an element of Spinoza's intellectual heritage and contrasts with the uncompromising nineteenth-century atheism of David Friedrich Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach, to which Freud was heir.

In the first chapter of Civilization and Its Discontents Freud located the "oceanic feeling" in the primitive, undifferentiated ego; he pursued the dialogue with Rolland by searching for the causes of civilized unhappiness, which he attributed to excessive repression of sexual and aggressive drives and to the loss of collective ideals. Close to Rolland in his critique of Nazi anti-Semitism, Freud differed with him in showing that quasi-religious idealization of communist dogma masked its underlying violence.

The Journey Within (1942), a kind of self-analysis, which Rolland began after his visit to Freud, reveals an unconscious communication with him: he wrote about mourning his two-year-old sister, Madeleine, who died when he was five. In a mirror transference, with twelve years in age between them, Freud analyzed his own childhood grief, associated with the death of his infant brother Julius, when he was about two years old, in his "A Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis" (1936a), addressed to Rolland on the occasion of the latter's seventieth birthday. Capping their correspondence and transference relationship, several of Freud's last writings developed themes first sketched in this final burst of self-analysis.

Bibliography

Duchatelet, B. (1976).Á propos d'une correspondance qui n'est pas encore générale. Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France, 76, 958-975.

Freud, Sigmund. (1927c). Future of an illusion. SE, 21.

——. (1930a). Civilization and its discontents. SE, 21.

——. (1960). Letters. New York: Basic.

Rolland, Romain. (1959). The journey within. New York: Philosophical Library.

Vermorel, Henri, and Vermorel, Madeleine (Eds.). (1993) Sigmund Freud et Romain Rolland: Correspondance 1923-1936. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

—HENRI VERMORELAND MADELEINE VERMOREL

Quotes:

"I know at last what distinguishes man from animals; financial worries."

"Skepticism, riddling the faith of yesterday, prepared the way for the faith of tomorrow."

Romain Rolland
Rolland with Gandhi in Switzerland, 1931. The two were friends and regular correspondents.
Born	29 January 1866(1866-01-29) Clamecy, Nièvre
Died	30 December 1944 (aged 78) Vézelay
Occupation	Dramatist, Essayist, Art historian, Novelist
Nationality	French
Writing period	1902–1944
Notable award(s)	Nobel Prize in Literature 1915
Influences Maurice Pottecher Jean-Jacques Rousseau François Rabelais Ernest Renan Leo Tolstoy Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Henri Bergson Hermann Hesse Grigol Robakidze

Romain Rolland (29 January 1866 – 30 December 1944) was a French dramatist, essayist, art historian and mystic who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1915.^[1]

Contents 1 Biography 2 People's theatre 3 Academic career 4 Correspondence with Freud 5 Quotations 6 References 7 External links

Biography

Rolland was born in Clamecy, Nièvre to a family of notaries; he had both peasants and wealthy townspeople in his lineage. Writing introspectively in his Voyage intérieur (1942), he sees himself as a representative of an "antique species". He would cast these ancestors in Colas Breugnon (1919).

Accepted to the École normale supérieure in 1886, he first studied philosophy, but his independence of spirit led him to abandon that so as not to submit to the dominant ideology. He received his degree in history in 1889 and spent two years in Rome, where his encounter with Malwida von Meysenburg–who had been a friend of Nietzsche and of Wagner–and his discovery of Italian masterpieces were decisive for the development of his thought. When he returned to France in 1895, he received his doctoral degree with his thesis The origins of modern lyric theatre and his doctoral dissertation, A History of Opera in Europe before Lully and Scarlatti.

His first book was published in 1902, when he was 36 years old. Through his advocacy for a 'people's theatre', he made a significant contribution towards the democratization of the theatre. As a humanist, he embraced the work of the philosophers of India ("Conversations with Rabindranath Tagore", and Mohandas Gandhi). Rolland was strongly influenced by the Vedanta philosophy of India, primarily through the works of Swami Vivekananda.^[2]

People's theatre

"The people have been gradually conquered by the bourgeois class, penetrated by their thoughts and now want only to resemble them. If you long for a people's art, begin by creating a people!"

Romain Rolland, Le Théâtre du peuple (1903).[3]

Rolland's most significant contribution to the theatre lies in his advocacy for a "popular theatre" in his essay The People's Theatre (Le Théâtre du peuple, 1902).^[4] "There is only one necessary condition for the emergence of a new theatre", he wrote, "that the stage and auditorium should be open to the masses, should be able to contain a people and the actions of a people".^[5] The book was not published until 1913, but most of its contents had appeared in the Revue d'Art Dramatique between 1900 and 1903. Rolland attempted to put his theory into practice with his melodramatic dramas about the French Revolution, Danton (1900) and The Fourteenth of July (1902), but it was his ideas that formed a major reference point for subsequent practitioners.^[4]

Programme sheet for Piscator's 1922 production of Rolland's drama The Time Will Come (1903), at the Central-Theater in Berlin.

The essay is part of a more general movement around the turn of that century towards the democratization of the theatre. The Revue had held a competition and tried to organize a "World Congress on People's Theatre", and a number of People's Theatres had opened across Europe, including the Freie Volksbühne movement ('Free People's Theatre') in Germany and Maurice Pottecher's Théâtre du Peuple in France. Rolland was a disciple of Pottecher and dedicated The People's Theatre to him.

Rolland's approach is more aggressive, though, than Pottecher's poetic vision of theatre as a substitute 'social religion' bringing unity to the nation. Rolland indictes the bourgeoisie for its appropriation of the theatre, causing it to slide into decadence, and the deleterious effects of its ideological dominance. In proposing a suitable repertoire for his people's theatre, Rolland rejects classical drama in the belief that it is either too difficult or too static to be of interest to the masses. Drawing on the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, he proposes instead "an epic historical theatre of 'joy, force and intelligence' which will remind the people of its revolutionary heritage and revitalize the forces working for a new society" (in the words of Bradby and McCormick, quoting Rolland).^[6] Rolland believed that the people would be improved by seeing heroic images of their past. Rousseau's influence may be detected in Rolland's conception of theatre-as-festivity, an emphasis that reveals a fundamental anti-theatrical prejudice: "Theatre supposes lives that are poor and agitated, a people searching in dreams for a refuge from thought. If we were happier and freer we should not feel hungry for theatre. [...] A people that is happy and free has need of festivities more than of theatres; it will always see in itself the finest spectacle."^[7]

Rolland's dramas have been staged by some of the most influential theatre directors of the twentieth century, including Max Reinhardt and Erwin Piscator.^[8] Piscator directed the world première of Rolland's pacifist drama The Time Will Come (Le Temps viendra, written in 1903) at Berlin's Central-Theater, which opened on 17 November 1922 with music by K Pringsheim and scenic design by O Schmalhausen and M Meier.^[9] The play addresses the connections between imperialism and capitalism, the treatment of enemy civilians, and the use of concentration camps, all of which are dramatised via an episode in the Boer War.^[10] Piscator described his treatment of the play as "thoroughly naturalistic", whereby he sought "to achieve the greatest possible realism in acting and decor."^[11] Despite the play's overly-rhetorical style, the production was reviewed positively.^[10]

Academic career

He became a history teacher at Lycée Henri IV, then at the Lycée Louis le Grand, and member of the École française de Rome, then a professor of the History of Music at the Sorbonne, and History Professor at the École Normale Supérieure.

A demanding, yet timid, young man, he did not like teaching. He was not indifferent to youth: Jean-Christophe, Olivier and their friends, the heroes of his novels, are young people. But with real-life persons, youths as well as adults, Rolland maintained only a distant relationships. He was first and foremost a writer. Assured that literature would provide him with a modest income, he resigned from the university in 1912.

Romain Rolland was a lifelong pacifist. He protested against the first World War in Au-dessus de la Mêlée (1915), Above the Battle (Chicago, 1916). In 1924, his book on Gandhi contributed to the Indian nonviolent leader's reputation and the two men met in 1931.

In 1928 he and Hungarian scholar, philosopher and natural living experimenter Edmund Bordeaux Szekely founded the International Biogenic Society to promote and expand on their ideas of the integration of mind, body and spirit.

He moved to Villeneuve, on the shores of Lac Léman (Lake Geneva) to devote himself to writing. His life was interrupted by health problems, and by travels to art exhibitions. His voyage to Moscow (1935), on the invitation of Maxim Gorky, was an opportunity to meet Stalin, whom he considered the greatest man of his time.^{[citation needed]} Rolland served unofficially as ambassador of French artists to the Soviet Union. However, as a pacifist, he was uncomfortable with Stalin’s brutal repression of the opposition. He attempted to discuss his concerns with Stalin, and was involved in the campaign for the release of the Left Opposition activist/writer Victor Serge and wrote to Stalin begging clemency for Nikolai Bukharin. During Serge’s imprisonment (1933-1936), Rolland had agreed to handle the publications of Serge’s writings in France, despite their political disagreements.

In 1937, he came back to live in Vézelay, which, in 1940, was occupied by the Germans. During the occupation, he isolated himself in complete solitude.

Never stopping his work, in 1940, he finished his memoirs. He also placed the finishing touches on his musical research on the life of Ludwig van Beethoven. Shortly before his death, he wrote Péguy (1944), in which he examines religion and socialism through the context of his memories. He died on 30 December 1944 in Vézelay.

In 1921, his close friend, the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig, wrote his biography: The Man and His Works. Zweig profoundly admired Rolland, of whom he once said to be: "the moral consciousness of Europe" during the years of turmoil and War in Europe.

Herman Hesse dedicated Siddhartha to Romain Rolland "my dear friend".

Correspondence with Freud

1923 saw the beginning of a correspondence between the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and Rolland, who found that the admiration that he showed for Freud was reciprocated in equal measures (Freud proclaiming in a letter to him: "That I have been allowed to exchange a greeting with you will remain a happy memory to the end of my days.").^[12] This correspondence introduced Freud to the concept of the "oceanic feeling" that Rolland had developed through his study of Eastern mysticism. Freud opened his next book Civilization and its Discontents (1929) with a debate on the nature of this feeling, which he mentioned had been noted to him by an anonymous "friend". This friend was Rolland. Rolland would remain a major influence on Freud's work, continuing their correspondence right up to Freud's death in 1939.^[13]

Quotations

• "To one whose mind is free, there is something even more intolerable in the suffering of animals than in the sufferings of humans. For with the latter, it is at least admitted that suffering is evil and that the person who causes it is a criminal. But thousands of animals are uselessly butchered every day without a shadow of remorse. If any person were to refer to it, they would be thought ridiculous. And that is the unpardonable crime. That alone is the justification of all that humans may suffer. It cries vengeance upon all the human race. If God exists and tolerates it, it cries vengeance upon God." Jean Christophe.

• "If there is one place on the face of the earth where all the dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India....For more than 30 centuries, the tree of vision, with all its thousand branches and their millions of twigs, has sprung from this torrid land, the burning womb of the Gods. It renews itself tirelessly showing no signs of decay." ^[14] Life of Ramakrishna

• "The true Vedantic spirit does not start out with a system of preconceived ideas. It possesses absolute liberty and unrivalled courage among religions with regard to the facts to be observed and the diverse hypotheses it has laid down for their coordination. Never having been hampered by a priestly order, each man has been entirely free to search wherever he pleased for the spiritual explanation of the spectacle of the universe.",^[15] Life of Vivekananda.

• "There are some dead who are more alive than the living."
• "No, no! It would be more true to say that there are some who are more dead than the dead." "Maybe. In any case there are old things which are still young."

"Then if they are still young we can find them for ourselves. . . . But I don't believe it. What has been good once never is good again."

Romain Rolland, "Jean-Christophe: Revolt," p. 395

• "All these young millionaires were anarchists, of course: when a man possesses everything it is the supreme luxury for him to deny society: for in that way he can evade his responsibilities."

Ibid., p. 399.

Romain Rolland Bibliography

Year	Work	Notes
1888	Amour d'enfants
1891	Les Baglioni	Unpublished during his lifetime.
1891	Empédocle (Empedocles)	Unpublished during his lifetime.
1891	Orsino	Unpublished during his lifetime.
1892	Le Dernier Procès de Louis Berquin (The Last Trial of Louis Berquin)
1895	Les Origines du théâtre lyrique moderne (The origins of modern lyric theatre)	Academic treatise, which won a prize from the Académie Française
1895	Histoire de l'opéra avant Lully et Scarlatti (A History of Opera in Europe before Lully and Scarlatti)	Dissertation for his doctorate in Letters
1895	Cur ars picturae apud Italos XVI saeculi deciderit	Latin-language thesis on the decline in Italian oil painting in the course of the sixteenth century
1897	Saint-Louis
1897	Aërt	Historical/philosophical drama
1898	Les Loups (The Wolves)	Historical/philosophical drama
1899	Le Triomphe de la raison (The Triumph of Reason)	Historical/philosophical drama
1899	Georges Danton	Historical/philosophical drama
1900	Le Poison idéaliste
1901	Les Fêtes de Beethoven à Mayence
1902	Le Quatorze Juillet (July 14–Bastille Day)	Historical/philosophical drama
1902	François-Millet
1903	Vie de Beethoven (Life of Beethoven)	Biography
1903	Le temps viendra (The Time Will Come)	Drama
1903	Le Théâtre du peuple (The People's Theatre)	Seminal essay in the democratization of theatre.
1904	La Montespan	Historical/philosophical drama
1904 - 1912	Jean-Christophe	Cycle of ten volumes divided into three series–Jean-Christophe, Jean-Christophe à Paris, and la Fin du voyage, published by Cahiers de la Quinzaine
1904	L'Aube	First volume of the series Jean-Christophe
1904	Le Matin (Morning)	Second volume of the series Jean-Christophe
1904	L'Adolescent (The Adolescent)	Third volume of the series Jean-Christophe
1905	La Révolte (The Revolt)	Fourth volume of the series Jean-Christophe
1907	Vie de Michel-Ange (Life of Michelangelo)	Biography
1908	Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Contemporary Musicians)	Collection of articles and essays about music
1908	Musiciens d'autrefois (Musicians of the Past)	Collection of articles and essays about music
1908	La Foire sur la place	First volume of the series Jean-Christophe à Paris
1908	Antoinette	Second volume of the series Jean-Christophe à Paris
1908	Dans la maison (At Home)	Third volume of the series Jean-Christophe à Paris
1910	Haendel
1910	Les Amies (Friends)	First volume of the series la Fin du voyage
1911	La Vie de Tolstoï (Life of Tolstoy)	Biography
1911	Le Buisson ardent	Second volume of the series la Fin du voyage
1912	La Nouvelle Journée	Third volume of the series la Fin du voyage
1912	L'Humble Vie héroïque (The Humble Life of the Hero)
1915	Au-dessus de la mêlée (Above the Battle)	Pacifist manifesto
1915		Received the Nobel Prize in Literature
1917	Salut à la révolution russe (Salute to the Russian Revolution)
1918	Pour l'internationale de l'Esprit (For the International of the Spirit)
1918	L'Âge de la haine (The Age of Hatred)
1919	Colas Breugnon	Burgundian story
1919	Les Précurseurs (The Precursors)
1920		Founded the review Europe
1920	Clérambault
1920	Pierre et Luce
1921	Pages choisies (Selected Pages)
1921	La Révolte des machines (The Revolt of the Machines)
1922-1933	L'Âme enchantée (The Enchanted Soul)	Seven volumes
1922	Annette et Sylvie	First volume of l'Âme enchantée
1922	Les Vaincus
1924	L'Été (Summer)	Second volume of l'Âme enchantée
1924	Mahatma Gandhi
1925	Le Jeu de l'amour et de la mort (The Game of Love and Death)
1926	Pâques fleuries
1927	Mère et fils (Mother and Child)	Third volume of l'Âme enchantée
1928	Léonides
1928	De l'Héroïque à l'Appassionata (From the Heroic to the Passionate)
1929	Essai sur la mystique de l'action (A study of the Mystique of Action)
1929	L'Inde vivante (Living India)	Essays
1929	Vie de Ramakrishna (Life of Ramakrishna)	Essays
1930	Vie de Vivekananda (Life of Vivekananda)	Essays
1930	L'Évangile universel	Essays
1930	Goethe et Beethoven	Essay
1933	L'Annonciatrice
1935	Quinze Ans de combat
1936	Compagnons de route
1937	Le Chant de la Résurrection (Song of the Resurrection)
1938	Les Pages immortelles de Rousseau (The Immortal Pages of Rousseau)
1939	Robespierre	Historical/philosophical drama
1942	Le Voyage intérieur (The Interior Voyage)
1943	La Cathédrale interrompue (The Interrupted Cathedral)	Volumes I and II
1945	Péguy	Posthumous publication
1945	La Cathédrale interrompue	Volume III, posthumous

References

1. ^ http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/rolland.htm
2. ^ http://www.vedanta-newyork.org/thoughtson_rk.htm
3. ^ Quoted by David Bradby and John McCormick, People's Theatre (London: Croom Helm and Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978). ISBN 0847660737. p.32.
4. ^ ^{a b} David Bradby, "Rolland, Romain". In The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Ed. Martin Banham. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). ISBN 0521434378. p.930.
5. ^ Romain Rolland, Le Théâtre du peuple (Paris: Albin Michel) p.121. Quoted by David Bradby and John McCormick, People's Theatre (London: Croom Helm and Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978). ISBN 0847660737. p.16.
6. ^ David Bradby and John McCormick, People's Theatre (London: Croom Helm and Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978). ISBN 0847660737. p.32.
7. ^ Quoted by David Bradby and John McCormick, People's Theatre (London: Croom Helm and Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978). ISBN 0847660737. p.32-33.
8. ^ See John Willett, The Theatre of Erwin Piscator: Half a Century of Politics in the Theatre, London: Methuen, 1978 (p.15, 35, 46-7, 179). ISBN 0413378101.
9. ^ Piscator (1929, 353).
10. ^ ^{a b} Hugh Rorrison, in Piscator (1929, 55-56).
11. ^ Piscator (1929, 58).
12. ^ William B. Parsons, The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 23, Questia, 2 Apr. 2007.
13. ^ William B. Parsons, The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 19, Questia, 2 Apr. 2007.
14. ^ The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies at www.ocvhs.com
15. ^ Hinduism Today | Mar 1996 at www.hinduismtoday.com

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