Roscoe Conkling

For more information on Roscoe Conkling, visit Britannica.com.

(b. Albany, N.Y., 30 Oct. 1829; d. New York, N.Y., 18 Apr. 1888), lawyer and senator; declined a confirmed nomination to the U.S. Supreme Court. Conkling studied law in the offices of Spencer & Kurnan in Utica, New York, and became a member of the New York bar in 1850. Eight years later, he was elected to the House of Representatives, where he served until 1867, with the exception of the 1863–1865 term. Elected to the Senate in 1866, he became the undisputed leader of the Republican party in New York through the judicious use of federal patronage. He was reelected to the Senate in 1872 and 1878.

Conkling's friendship with President Ulysses S. Grant induced Grant to offer Conkling nomination as chief justice of the Supreme Court to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Salmon P. Chase in November 1873. Conkling declined this offer. In 1881 Conkling lost a bitter struggle with President James A. Garfield for control of federal patronage in New York. He resigned his Senate seat in protest two weeks later. After Garfield's death, President Chester A. Arthur on 24 February 1882 nominated Conkling as associate justice of the Supreme Court. The Senate confirmed Conkling on 2 March 1882 by a vote of 39 to 12. Five days later, however, Conkling formally declined the position. The New York Times suggested that the reason was that the position paid too little money and did not carry any patronage.

Conkling moved to Manhattan and resumed the private practice of law. He established a reputation in a short time and reportedly made a fortune. He died in New York City on 18 April 1888.

— Judith K. Schafer

Roscoe Conkling (1829-1888) represented the most unabashed sort of American political partisanship in the 1860s and 1870s. A leader of the "Stalwart" faction of the Republican party, he became a symbol of spoilsmanship in politics.

Roscoe Conkling was born on Oct. 30, 1829, in Albany, N.Y. He attended Mount Washington Collegiate Institute, read law, and became district attorney of Albany. He moved to Utica, where in 1858 he was Whig party mayor. He sat in the House of Representatives from 1859 to 1863 and 1865 to 1867. A staunch supporter of Thaddeus Stevens and the Radical Republicans, Conkling once defended the dying Stevens from physical attack and sat on the "Committee of 15," which drafted the Radical program of reconstruction.

In 1867 Conkling seized effective control of the New York State Republican organization and got himself elected to the Senate. A devoted follower of Ulysses S. Grant, Conkling was at home only in the rough-and-tumble world of "gilded age" politics. Grant offered to make him chief justice of the Supreme Court in 1873, and Chester Arthur offered him a seat on the Court a decade later. But he rejected both.

"I do not know how to belong to a party a little," Conkling said, and he was indeed the sort of partisan that has since vanished from the political scene. He was frank; he insisted loudly where others equivocated; he believed that party workers should receive benefits from winning elections, that is, jobs and other financial rewards; in return he demanded that they support the party as if it were a holy cause. He had a brilliant, quick mind in debate but saved his most scathing remarks for reformers who sought to eliminate political patronage through civil service reform which would distribute political appointments according to merit only.

Conkling battled President Hayes for control of the patronage in New York and hoped in 1880 to reelect Grant to the presidency. But the Republicans nominated James A. Garfield of Ohio. Conkling at once joined battle with President Garfield over patronage. In an attempt to rebuff him Conkling resigned his Senate seat: the idea was to be reelected in the face of Garfield's opposition, thus demonstrating his personal power in New York. But Garfield was killed in the meantime by a madman claiming to be a "Stalwart," and the shocked New York Legislature refused to follow Conkling's will. He effectively retired from politics, noting characteristically, "How can I speak into a grave? How can I battle with a shroud? Silence is a duty and a doom."

Conkling retired to a lucrative legal practice and to the fashionable New York City society that he adorned very well. A large, handsome man with a boxer's physique, he inspired nicknames such as the "Curled Darling of Utica" because of his affectation of gay, fashionably cut clothing. James G. Blaine matched Conkling's invective when he ridiculed Conkling's "haughty disdain, his grandiloquent swell, his majestic, supereminent, overpowering, turkey-gobbler strut." Garfield incisively characterized Conkling as "a singular compound of a very brilliant man and an exceedingly petulant child." For all his arrogance and pomposity, however, Conkling clung to causes such as African American rights long after better-remembered contemporaries had abandoned them. And one ultimate conclusion about his spoilsmanship must be that he spoke frankly while others were hypocritical. He died in New York City on April 18, 1888.

Further Reading

A relative, Alfred R. Conkling, published the customary 19th-century biography upon the death of Conkling, The Life and Letters of Roscoe Conkling: Orator, Statesman, and Advocate (1889). David M. Jordon, Roscoe Conkling of New York: Voice in the Senate (1971), is a penetrating and detailed biography. An incisive portrayal of Conkling is contained in H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley (1969).

• Born: Oct. 30, 1829, Albany, N.Y.
• Political party: Republican
• Education: studied law
• Representative from New York: 1859–63, 1865–67
• Senator from New York: 1867–81
• Died: Apr. 18, 1888, New York, N.Y.

Handsome, intelligent, and eloquent but also vain, pompous, and overbearing, Senator Roscoe Conkling built one of the most powerful political machines (a tightly run political organization based on patronage) of the Gilded Age. Representative James Garfield (Republican–Ohio) once observed that Conkling was “inspired more by his hates than his loves.” When Garfield won the Presidency, he took on the New York senator. Conkling's machine depended upon patronage—awarding government jobs in return for political support—and the richest source of patronage was the collector of the port of New York, the person who collected tariff revenues at the nation's busiest port. Conkling wanted his own man in the post, but Garfield instead nominated Conkling's rival, Judge William Robertson. When a Senate clerk read out Robertson's nomination, Conkling “raged and roared like a bull,” according to a fellow Republican senator. Estimating that Garfield had the votes to confirm the nomination, Conkling and fellow New York Republican Senator Thomas C. Platt resigned from the Senate. They expected the New York legislature to reelect them as a show of support. But in a tragic twist of fate, an assassin sympathetic to Conkling shot and fatally wounded President Garfield. The New York legislature declined to reelect either Conkling or Platt, and Conkling's machine collapsed, ending his political career. Garfield's death spurred Congress to enact the first civil service laws aimed at ending the abuses of federal patronage.

See also Patronage

Sources

• David M. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling of New York: Voice in the Senate (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971)

Roscoe Conkling was for many years in the late nineteenth century the most powerful politician in the most powerful state in the Union, New York. Conkling served in both the U.S. House (1859-63 and 1865-67) and the U.S. Senate (1867-81). During his years in Congress, he became an influential Republican leader. Conkling was a close friend of President Ulysses S. Grant and an avowed enemy of other prominent Republicans of the day, namely, James G. Blaine, Rutherford B. Hayes, and James Garfield. Conkling twice turned down nominations to the U.S. Supreme Court, including a confirmed nomination in 1882. In the Senate, he fought ferociously for the continuation of political patronage—the system whereby elected officials appoint individuals to positions in the civil service and other areas of governments—and against the civil service reform efforts that would have ended it. His political machine in New York State was, according to his principal biographer, "one of the wonders of the age." Conkling himself, it might be said, was one of the wonders of the age—the Gilded Age, that is, the late-nineteenth-century era following the Civil War when business and moneymaking were the foremost concerns in the United States.

Conkling was born October 30, 1829, in Albany, New York. After attending Mount Washington Collegiate Institute, in New York City, he moved to Utica, New York, where he studied law with a local firm. He was admitted to the bar in 1850 and was immediately appointed district attorney of Albany. In subsequent years, and while still in his twenties, Conkling made a reputation for himself as an orator and aspiring politician at the Whig party's county and state conventions. In 1855, he married Julia Seymour—sister of Horatio Seymour, who was elected governor of New York in 1853 and 1863.

In 1858, Conkling was elected both mayor of Utica and representative to the U.S. Congress. He won the latter office as a Republican and served three terms. He became a Free-Soil Republican, strongly opposing the introduction of slavery into the territories and new states of the U.S. West. After the Civil War was over in 1865, Conkling served on the Committee of Reconstruction, and on the Committee of Fifteen, where he helped draft the Fourteenth Amendment.

At about the same time, one of the principal rivalries of Conkling's political career began to heat up. In 1866, while skirmishing over issues of Reconstruction in the House, fellow Republican Blaine, of Maine, in a famous speech before Congress, criticized Conkling's "haughty disdain, his grandiloquent swell, his majestic, supereminent, overpowering, turkey-gobbler strut"—words that became associated with Conkling for the rest of his career. Blaine became Speaker of the House from 1869 to 1875. Conkling never forgave him, and when Blaine ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 1876 and 1880, Conkling helped frustrate his candidacies. The rivalry between these two politicians was a defining feature of Republican politics in the 1870s and 1880s.

In 1866, Conkling was elected to the U.S. Senate from New York, winning a seat he would hold through two reelections, until his resignation in 1881. These were the years of Conkling's greatest political ascendancy, when he became the most powerful politician in New York. Most notoriously, Conkling gained control over appointments to the New York Custom House, the large administrative body that oversaw business at the nation's most important commercial hub. The Custom House's payroll was the plum of the patronage system, and Conkling appointed dozens of people to it. These people, in turn, became political allies, able to use their time and energy to aid the politician who gave them their jobs.

Conkling's power was solidified when Grant entered the office of president in 1869, a post he held to 1877. Conkling and Grant became strong political allies, and in 1873, Grant offered Conkling the position of chief justice of the Supreme Court, after Salmon P. Chase's death. Conkling refused the offer, believing his talents to be suited more to the role of politician than to that of judge.

In 1877 Conkling made important contributions to the electoral commission bill that resolved the contested election between presidential candidates Samuel J. Tilden, a Democrat, and Hayes, a Republican. He also became a strong opponent of Hayes, who sought to end patronage by separating civil service officials from party control. Conkling asserted that a senator had the right to control the federal administration in his own state, and he opposed the idea that the president should make such appointments. In 1879, Hayes ousted many of Conkling's friends in the New York patronage system. However, in 1880, Conkling won reelection to the Senate, and his friend Thomas C. Platt was elected as a fellow U.S. senator from New York.

In the events surrounding the presidential election of 1880, Conkling became the leader of a group of Republicans known as the Stalwarts, who were fervent supporters of Grant. Opposed to the Stalwarts was the Half-Breed faction of the Republican party, which favored Blaine. At the Republican National Convention in the summer of 1880, Conkling made a desperate bid for the nomination of Grant as the presidential candidate. He failed, and his political machine quickly crumbled, though he did succeed in blocking the nomination of Blaine. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, an ally of Conkling's, became the Republican nominees, and Conkling reluctantly supported them during the election. Conkling provided crucial campaign support to Garfield and believed that he would be rewarded for his help, but those hopes were dashed when Garfield nominated Conkling's enemy Blaine as secretary of state. Conkling opposed the Garfield administration after it assumed office, again over the issue of the right to control jobs in the New York Custom House. When he failed to prevent the confirmation of Garfield's appointees, Conkling resigned his Senate seat in disgust, on May 16, 1881, and persuaded Platt to join him. Conkling's defeat was an important gain for the presidency at a time when congressional powers were stronger than ever before or since.

Strangely enough, when the psychotic Charles Julius Guiteau assassinated President Garfield on July 2, 1881, he claimed to be a Stalwart who sought to remove Garfield and make way for Vice President Arthur. Much of the public outrage over Garfield's assassination was vented on Conkling, and, though Guiteau was only remotely associated with Conkling, many considered the assassin to be one of Conkling's followers.

After failing in an attempt to induce the New York Legislature to reelect him as senator after his resignation, Conkling retired from politics and began a successful and lucrative corporate law practice in New York City. He proved to be a highly effective trial lawyer. His clients included the financier Jay Gould and other notorious figures of the Gilded Age. On February 24, 1882, President Arthur, who had become Garfield's vice president through Conkling's help, attempted to repay his political debt when he nominated Conkling to take the seat of U.S. Supreme Court justice Ward Hunt, who was retiring. Conkling turned the nomination down, even after it had been confirmed by the Senate. Conkling was later upset that Arthur— whom Conkling sneeringly called His Accidency—had not decided to run a Stalwart-dominated administration. Indeed, in 1883, Arthur signed into law the Pendleton Act, also called the Civil Service Act (5 U.S.C.A. §1101 et seq.), which was the first comprehensive act of Congress toward civil service reform, further dismantling the system whereby Conkling and others had amassed tremendous political power.

On December 19, 1882, Conkling appeared before the Court as a lawyer in San Mateo County v. Southern Pacific R.R., 116 U.S. 138, 6 S. Ct. 317, 29 L. Ed. 589 (1885). Arguing on behalf of the railroad, Conkling sought to persuade the Court that a county tax violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which reads, " … nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." Previously, in the Slaughter-House cases, 83 U.S. (16 Wall.) 36, 21 L. Ed. 394 (1873), the Court had restricted application of the Due Process Clause to freed African Americans. Conkling, of course, had been involved in framing the Fourteenth Amendment, and now he argued that the clause was originally intended to protect corporations as well as persons. The Court did not make a decision regarding Conkling's claims, declaring the case moot after the railroad honored some of its tax requirements to the county.

In the 1886 case Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific R.R., 118 U.S. 394, 6 S. Ct. 1132, 30 L. Ed. 118, the Court agreed with Conkling's claims that the term person as used in the Equal Protection Clause applies to corporations as well as natural persons. Conkling's arguments therefore influenced the later development of the doctrine of substantive due process, which the Court used repeatedly to strike down state and federal regulation of business from the 1890s to the 1930s.

On April 18, 1888, Conkling died at age fifty-nine, in New York City, of complications surrounding a brain abscess. Despite his political stature, Conkling had sponsored relatively little significant legislation during his career. Though he did help create the Fourteenth Amendment, he played a fairly peripheral role in Reconstruction legislation. He was a politician motivated principally by personal rivalries rather than by ideas. He remains most well-known for his tremendous New York political machine and for his spirited political maneuvers that helped define the political atmosphere during the post-Civil War era in the United States.

See also Roscoe Conkling Patterson, a U.S. Senator from Missouri.

See also Roscoe Conkling McCulloch, a U.S. Senator from Ohio.

Roscoe Conkling
United States Senator from New York
In office March 4, 1867 – May 16, 1881
Preceded by	Ira Harris
Succeeded by	Elbridge G. Lapham
Born	October 30, 1829(1829-10-30) Albany, New York, U.S.
Died	April 18, 1888 (aged 58) New York City, New York, U.S.
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	Julia Catherine Seymour
Profession	Lawyer, Politician

Roscoe Conkling (October 30, 1829 – April 18, 1888) was a politician from New York who served both as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. He was the leader of the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party and, as of July 2009, the last person to refuse a Supreme Court appointment after he had been already been confirmed by the Senate.

Contents 1 Personal life 2 Career 3 Actions in Congress and the Senate 4 Relationship with Chester Arthur 5 See also 6 References 7 Primary sources 8 External links

Personal life

Conkling was born in Albany, New York; his father, Alfred Conkling, was a U.S. Representative and Federal judge and his brother, Frederick Augustus Conkling, was also a U.S. Representative. He married Julia Catherine Seymour, sister of the Democratic politician and Governor of New York Horatio Seymour.

He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1850.

Conkling was accused of having an affair with the married Kate Chase Sprague, daughter of Salmon P. Chase. According to a well-known story, buttressed by contemporaneous press reports, Mr. Sprague confronted the philandering couple at Sprague's Rhode Island summer home and pursued Conkling with a shotgun.

Career

He began a practice in Utica, New York. He served as the district attorney for Oneida County in 1850; mayor of Utica in 1858; elected as a Republican to the Thirty-sixth and Thirty-seventh Congresses (March 4, 1859-March 3, 1863); chairman, Committee on District of Columbia (Thirty-seventh Congress); unsuccessful candidate in 1862 for reelection; elected to the Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Congresses and served from March 4, 1865, until he resigned to become Senator, effective March 4, 1867; elected in 1867 as a Republican to the United States Senate; reelected in 1873 and again in 1879, he served until May 16, 1881, when he resigned as a protest against the federal appointments made in New York State; was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by his own resignation; chairman, Committee on Revision of the Laws of the United States (Fortieth through Forty-third Congresses), Committee on Commerce (Forty-fourth, Forty-fifth, and Forty-seventh Congresses), Committee on Engrossed Bills (Forty-sixth and Forty-seventh Congresses); resumed the practice of law in New York City; declined to accept a nomination to the United States Supreme Court in 1882. He died after falling ill from walking in a blizzard in New York City, on April 18, 1888; interment in Forest Hill Cemetery, Utica. A statue of him stands in Madison Square Park in New York City. Roscoe, New York is named for him.^[1]

Actions in Congress and the Senate

• He was an enthusiastic supporter of the Lincoln administration and its conduct of the American Civil War.
• He helped draft the 14th and 15th amendments to the Constitution.
• He was a Radical Republican taking a harsh line toward the defeated South, He was active in framing and pushing through Congress the Reconstruction legislation, and was instrumental in the passage of the second Civil Rights Act in 1875.
• In the Republican National Convention at Cincinnati in 1876, Conkling first appeared as a presidential candidate, initially receiving 93 votes. His votes would later be thrown behind Rutherford B. Hayes in order to prevent the ascension of James G. Blaine.
• He was one of the framers of the bill creating the Electoral Commission to decide the disputed election of 1876.
• Early in 1880, Conkling became the leader of the movement for the nomination of Ulysses S. Grant for a third term in the presidency.
• He championed the broad interpretation of the ex post facto clause in the Constitution (See Stogner v. California)
• After resigning from the Senate in 1881, he became a lawyer. As one of the original drafters of the Fourteenth Amendment, he claimed before the Supreme Court in San Mateo County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company in 1882 that the phrase "nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws" meant the drafters wanted corporations to be included, because they used the word "person" and cited his personal diary from the period. Howard Jay Graham, a Stanford University historian considered the pre-eminent scholar on the Fourteenth Amendment, named this case the "conspiracy theory" and concluded that Conkling probably perjured himself for the benefit of his railroad friends.^{[citation needed]}

Relationship with Chester Arthur

Conkling, a machine Republican, led the Stalwart (pro-Grant) faction of the GOP, in opposition to the "Half-Breeds" led by James G. Blaine. Conkling served as a mentor to Chester A. Arthur, beginning in the late 1860s. Arthur received from Conkling a tax commission post (along with a salary of $10,000), and was later put in charge of the New York City Custom House. However, In 1878 Conkling lost a key battle against Rutherford B. Hayes’s civil service reform. Hayes bypassed any vote on Arthur’s removal from office by simply promoting Merritt from surveyor to Collector of the Port of New York which ousted Arthur. Conkling and Arthur were so intimately associated that it was feared, after President James Garfield was assassinated, that the killing had been done at Conkling's behest in order to install Arthur as president. Arthur later offered Conkling an appointment to the U.S. Supreme Court, although it was thought the gesture was merely "complimentary", that Conkling was too partisan to make a good Justice, and that Arthur was paying back his patron with the honor of nomination, even though it was expected Conkling would refuse. However, Conkling had a great reputation as a trial lawyer, and he had once before (in 1874) been offered the chief justiceship by President Ulysses S. Grant. At that time Conkling had rejected the offer. He accepted this offer from Arthur, was voted into the position by the U.S. Senate, and then declined to take office.

In fact, Arthur's and Conkling's relationship was destroyed by the former's accession to the presidency. The Stalwarts faction that Conkling led was opposed to civil service reform, instead advocating the old patronage system of political appointments. Conkling was not asked by Garfield (a member of the rival Republican faction, the Half-Breeds) before the appointment of William H. Robertson as Collector of the Port of New York, causing Conkling to protest by resigning from Congress. Then, Conkling tried to force the Republican majority of the New York State Legislature to re-elect him, affirming his status as the New Yorker Republican leader, but was blocked successfully by the Half-Breed faction, and Conkling's congressional career ended. When Arthur became president upon Garfield's death, Conkling attempted to sway his protégé into changing the appointment. Arthur, who would become an avid champion of civil service reform, refused. The two men never repaired the breach. Without Conkling's leadership, his Stalwart faction dissolved. However, upon Arthur's death in 1886, Conkling attended the funeral and showed deep sorrow according to onlookers.

See also

• U. S. Senator Thomas C. Platt of New York.

References

1. ^ http://www.sullivancountyhistory.org/new_page_4.htm

• Roscoe Conkling at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
• Burlingame, Sara Lee. "The Making of a Spoilsman: The Life and Career of Roscoe Conkling from 1829 to 1873." PhD dissertation Johns Hopkins U. 1974. 419 pp.
• Eidson, William G. "Who Were the Stalwarts?" Mid-America 1970 52(4): 235-261. Issn: 0026-2927
• Graham, Howard Jay. “The ‘Conspiracy Theory’ of the Fourteenth Amendment”. The Yale Law Journal. Vol. 47, No. 3. (January, 1938), pp. 371–403.
• David M Jordan. Roscoe Conkling of New York: voice in the Senate, (1971) (ISBN 0801406250) the standard scholarly biography
• Morgan, H. Wayne. From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896 (1969)
• Peskin, Allan. "Conkling, Roscoe" American National Biography Online, (February 2000), http://www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00255.html, (29 January 2007).
• Peskin, Allan. "Who Were the Stalwarts? Who Were Their Rivals? Republican Factions in the Gilded Age." Political Science Quarterly 1984-1985 99(4): 703-716. Issn: 0032-3195 Fulltext: online in Jstor
• Reeves, Thomas C. “Chester A. Arthur and the Campaign of 1880”. Political Science Quarterly. Vol. 84, No. 4. (December, 1969), pp. 628–637.
• Shores, Venila Lovina. The Hayes-Conkling Controversy, 1877-1879 (Smith College Studies in History, Vol. IV, No. 4, July, 1919), Northampton, MA, 1919. In The Spoils System in New York. Edited by James MacGregor Burns and William E. Leuchtenburg. New York: Arno Press, Inc. 1974.
• Swindler, William F. "Roscoe Conkling and the Fourteenth Amendment." Supreme Court Historical Society Yearbook 1983: 46-52. Issn: 0362-5249

Primary sources

• A. R. Conkling (editor), The Life and Letters of Roscoe Conkling: Orator, Statesman, Advocate (1889)
• The Nation, March 2, 1882
• Eaton, Dorman B., The Spoils System and Civil Service Reform in the Custom-House and Post-Office at New York (Publications of the Civil Service Reform Association, No. 3), New York, 1881. In The Spoils System in New York. Edited by James MacGregor Burns and William E. Leuchtenburg. New York: Arno Press, Inc. 1974.

External links

• Mr. Lincoln and New York: Roscoe Conkling
• 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica biography

• Roscoe Conkling at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
• Roscoe Conkling at Find a Grave

United States House of Representatives
Preceded by Orsamus B. Matteson	Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 20th congressional district 1859-03-04 – 1863-03-03	Succeeded by Ambrose W. Clark
Preceded by Francis Kernan	Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 21st congressional district 1865-03-04 – 1867-03-03	Succeeded by Alexander H. Bailey
United States Senate
Preceded by Ira Harris	Senator from New York (Class 3) March 4, 1867 – May 16, 1881 Served alongside: Edwin D. Morgan, Reuben E. Fenton, Francis Kernan, Thomas C. Platt	Succeeded by Elbridge G. Lapham

v • d • e United States Senators from New York Class 1 Schuyler • Burr • Schuyler • Hobart • North • Watson • Morris • Bailey • Armstrong • Mitchill • German • Sanford • Van Buren • Dudley • Tallmadge • Dickinson • Fish • P. King • Morgan • Fenton • Kernan • Platt • Miller • Hiscock • Murphy • Depew • O'Gorman • Calder • Copeland • Mead • Ives • Keating • Kennedy • Goodell • Buckley • Moynihan • H. Clinton • Gillibrand Class 3 R. King • Laurance • Armstrong • D. Clinton • Armstrong • Smith • R. King • Sanford • Marcy • Wright • Foster • Dix • Seward • Harris • Conkling • Lapham • Evarts • Hill • Platt • Root • Wadsworth • Wagner • Dulles • Lehman • Javits • D'Amato • Schumer

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)