Russo-Japanese War

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Russo-Japanese War
Top: Russian cruiser Pallada under fire at Port Arthur Clockwise from left: Japanese infantry crossing the Yalu River, Russian cavalry at Mukden, Russian cruiser Varyag and gunboat Korietz at Chemulpo Bay, Russian soldiers standing over Japanese dead at Port Arthur.
Date 8 February 1904 – 5 September 1905 Location Manchuria, Yellow Sea Result Japanese victory, Treaty of Portsmouth
Belligerents
Russian Empire Principality of Montenegro	Empire of Japan
Commanders
Tsar Nicholas II Aleksey Kuropatkin Stepan Makarov  † Zinovy Rozhestvensky	Emperor Meiji Oyama Iwao Tōgō Heihachirō
Strength
~500,000 Troops	~400,000 Troops
Casualties and losses
76,948 dead	119,590 dead

The Russo-Japanese War (Japanese: 日露戦争; Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō; Russian: Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna; simplified Chinese: 日俄战争; traditional Chinese: 日俄戰爭; pinyin: Rìézhànzhēng, 10 February 1904 – 5 September 1905) or the Manchurian Campaign in some English sources, was a conflict that grew out of the rival imperialist ambitions of the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea.

The Russians were in constant pursuit of a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The recently established Pacific seaport of Vladivostok was operational only during the summer season, but Port Arthur would be operational all year. From the end of the First Sino-Japanese War to 1903, negotiations between the tsars's government and Japan had proved futile. Japan chose war to protect its exclusive dominance in Korea. Russia, meanwhile, saw war as a means of distracting the populace from government repression and rallying patriotism in the aftermath of several general strikes.^[1]

The resulting campaigns, in which the fledgling Japanese military consistently attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. These victories, as time transpired, would dramatically transform the distribution of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage. The embarrassing string of defeats increased Russian popular dissatisfaction with the inefficient and corrupt Tsarist government and proved a major cause of the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Origins of the Russo-Japanese war

After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the Meiji government hastened to assimilate Western ideas, technology, and customs. By the late 19th century, Japan had emerged from isolation and rapidly industrialized. The Japanese wished to preserve their sovereignty and to be recognized as an equal with the Western powers.^{[citation needed]}

Russia, a major Imperial power, had ambitions in the East. By the 1890s the Russian Empire stretched from Poland in the west to the Kamchatka peninsula in the East.^[2] With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, Russia hoped to further consolidate its influence and presence in the region.

Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)

The Japanese government regarded Korea, which was geo-politically close to Japan, as an essential part of its national security. The Japanese wanted, at least, to keep Korea independent under Japanese influence. Japan's subsequent defeat of China during the First Sino-Japanese War led to the Treaty of Shimonoseki under which China abandoned its own suzerainty over Korea and ceded Taiwan, Pescadores and the Liaodong Peninsula (Port Arthur) to Japan. However, the Russians persuaded Germany and France to join it in the Triple Intervention of April 1895, opposing Japanese claims on the Liaodong peninsula. Japan was forced to accept a larger indemnity from China instead.

Russian Encroachment

In December 1897, just two years after the Triple Intervention, a threatening Russian fleet appeared off Port Arthur. The Russian Empire forced China to lease them Port Arthur, Talienwan and the surrounding waters. The Russians quickly fortified Port Arthur, their sole warm-water port on the Pacific coast, and of great strategic value. A year later, to consolidate their position, the Russians began a new railway from Harbin through Mukden to Port Arthur. Chinese anger over this railway contributed to the Boxer Rebellion, and the railway stations at Tiehling and Lioyang were burnt.^{[citation needed]}

The Russians also began to make inroads into Korea, by 1898 they acquired mining and forestry concessions near Yalu and Tumen rivers,^[3] alarming the Japanese Empire. Japan decided to strike before the Trans-Siberian Railway was complete.^{[citation needed]}

The Boxer Rebellion

The Russians and the Japanese were both part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which intervened to quell the Boxer Rebellion and relieve the international legations under siege in Beijing. As part of this intervention, Russia sent troops to Manchuria to protect its interests.^[4] Russia assured the other powers that it would leave once the crisis subsided. However, by 1903 the Russians had not adhered to any timetable for withdrawal^[5] and had actually strengthened their position in Manchuria.

Negotiations

The Japanese statesman Itō Hirobumi started to negotiate with the Russians. He believed that Japan was too weak to evict Russia militarily, so he proposed accepting Russian control over Manchuria in exchange for Japanese control of northern Korea. Meanwhile, Japan and Britain had signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, the British seeking to restrict naval competition by keeping the Russian Pacific seaports of Vladivostok and Port Arthur from their full use. Under the terms of the alliance, if any nation allied with Russia during a war with Japan, Britain would enter the war on Japan's side. Russia could thus no longer count on help from Germany or France if hostilities broke out.^{[citation needed]}

On 28 July 1903, Kurino Shinichiro, the Japanese Minister at St. Petersburg, was instructed to register Japanese opposition to Russian plans for Manchuria. Negotiations proceeded, and by 13 January 1904 Japan again proposed accepting Russian control of Manchuria in return for guarantees of Japanese control in Korea. By 4 February 1904, Russia had not responded to this offer, and on 6 February the Minister, called on the Russian Foreign Minister, Count Vladimir Nikolaevich Lambsdorff, to take his leave, severing diplomatic relations between Japan and Russia.^[6]

A "sense of urgency" within the Japanese government was now prevalent and they sought to acquire naval submarines from a "neutral" government as quickly as possible. Several months thereafter, the Imperial Japanese Navy purchased five Holland-type VII-P submarines from the American Electric Boat Company. They were (originally) assembled at Fore River Ship and Engine Company of Quincy, Massachusetts by December 1904. These first five submarines were then "knocked down" to be shipped in a clandestine fashion to the far east. These first of five submarines were shipped by freighter (in crate form) to the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal to be re-assembled under the direction of Arthur Leopold Busch. Busch was a naval architect and shipbuilder who was responsible for the IJN's first fleet of underwater craft – delivered under his direction on behalf of the Electric Boat Company in 1905. The mission was carried out in relative secrecy as this war with Russia was still ongoing. Another Electric Boat representative, Frank Cable, was sent to Japan in the summer of 1905 to train the IJN (officers) in the handling and operation of these underwater naval craft.^{[citation needed]}

War

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Declaration of War

Greater Manchuria, Russian (outer) Manchuria is the lighter red region to the upper right.

Japan issued a declaration of war on 8 February 1904. However, three hours before Japan's declaration of war was received by the Russian Government, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the Russian Far East Fleet at Port Arthur. Tsar Nicholas II was stunned by news of the attack. He could not believe that Japan would commit an act of war without a formal declaration, and had been assured by his ministers that the Japanese would not fight. Russia declared war on Japan eight days later.^[7] However, the requirement to declare war before commencing hostilities was not made international law until after the war had ended in October 1907, effective from 26 January 1910.^[8] Montenegro also declared war against Japan as a gesture of moral support for Russia out of gratitude for Russian support in Montenegro's struggles against the Ottoman Empire. However, due to logistical reasons and distance, Montenegro's contribution to the war effort was limited to those Montenegrins who served in the Russian armed forces.^{[citation needed]}

Campaign of 1904

Battlefields in the Russo-Japanese War

Port Arthur, on the Liaodong Peninsula in the south of Manchuria, had been fortified into a major naval base by the Imperial Russian Army. Since it needed to control the sea in order to fight a war on the Asian mainland, Japan's first military objective was to neutralize the Russian fleet at Port Arthur.

Battle of Port Arthur

On the night of 8 February 1904, the Japanese fleet under Admiral Heihachiro Togo opened the war with a surprise torpedo boat attack on the Russian ships at Port Arthur. The attack badly damaged the Tsesarevich and Retvizan, the heaviest battleships in Russia's far Eastern theater, and the 6,600 ton cruiser Pallada.^[9] These attacks developed into the Battle of Port Arthur the next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which Admiral Togo was unable to attack the Russian fleet successfully as it was protected by the shore batteries of the harbor, and the Russians were reluctant to leave the harbor for the open seas, especially following the death of Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov on 13 April 1904.^{[citation needed]}

However, these engagements provided cover for a Japanese landing near Incheon in Korea. From Incheon the Japanese occupied Seoul and then the rest of Korea. By the end of April, the Imperial Japanese Army under Kuroki Itei was ready to cross the Yalu river into Russian-occupied Manchuria.^{[citation needed]}

Battle of Yalu River

In contrast to the Japanese strategy of rapidly gaining ground to control Manchuria, Russian strategy focused on fighting delaying actions to gain time for reinforcements to arrive via the long Trans-Siberian railway which was at the time incomplete near Irkutsk. On 1 May 1904, the Battle of Yalu River became the first major land battle of the war, Japanese troops crossed the Yalu river and defeated then routed a Russian force. The destruction of the Russian Eastern Detachment dispelled the assumptions that the Japanese would be an easy enemy, that Russia would be the overwhelming victor, and that the war would be short.^[10] Japanese troops proceeded to land at several points on the Manchurian coast and in a series of engagements, drove the Russians back towards Port Arthur. These battles, including the Battle of Nanshan on 25 May 1904, were marked by heavy Japanese losses from attacking entrenched Russian positions. The Russians maintained their focus on defending, however, and did not counter-attack.^{[citation needed]}

Blockade of Port Arthur

The Japanese attempted to deny the Russians use of Port Arthur. During the night of 13 February – 14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several cement-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port, but they sank too deep to be effective. Another similar attempt to block the harbor entrance during the night of 3–4 May also failed. In March, the charismatic Vice Admiral Makarov had taken command of the First Russian Pacific Squadron with the intention of breaking out of the Port Arthur blockade.

On 12 April 1904, two Russian pre-dreadnought battleships, the flagship Petropavlovsk and the Pobeda slipped out of port but struck Japanese mines off Port Arthur. The Petropavlovsk sank almost immediately, while the Pobeda had to be towed back to port for extensive repairs. Admiral Makarov, the single most effective Russian naval strategist of the war, had perished on the battleship Petropavlovsk.

On 15 April 1904, the Russian government made overtures threatening to seize the British war correspondents who were taking the ship Haimun into warzones to report for the London-based Times newspaper, citing concerns about the possibility of the British giving away Russian positions to the Japanese fleet.

The Russians learned quickly, and soon employed, the Japanese tactic of offensive minelaying. On 15 May 1904, two Japanese battleships, the Yashima and the Hatsuse, were lured into a recently laid Russian minefield off Port Arthur, each striking at least two mines. The Hatsuse sank within minutes, taking 450 sailors with her, while the Yashima sank while under tow towards Korea for repairs. On 23 June 1904, a breakout attempt by the Russian squadron, now under the command of Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft failed. By the end of the month, Japanese artillery were firing shells into the harbor.

Siege of Port Arthur

Bombardment during the Siege of Port Arthur.

Japan began a long siege of Port Arthur. On 10 August 1904, the Russian fleet again attempted to break out and proceed to Vladivostok, but upon reaching the open sea were confronted by Admiral Togo's battleship squadron. Known to the Russians as the Battle of 28 July, but more commonly referred to as the Battle of the Yellow Sea, battleships from both sides exchanged gunfire. The battle had the elements of a decisive battle, though Admiral Togo knew that another Russian battleship fleet would soon be sent to the Pacific. The Japanese had only one battleship fleet and Togo had already lost two battleships to Russian mines. The Russian and Japanese battleships continued to exchange gunfire, until the Russian flagship, the battleship Tsesarevich, received a direct hit on the bridge, killing the fleet commander, Admiral Vitgeft. At this, the Russian fleet turned around and headed back into Port Arthur. Though no warships were sunk by either side in the battle, the Russians were now back in port and the Japanese navy still had battleships to meet the new Russian fleet when it arrived.

Fall of Port Arthur

Bronze relief commemorating the opening of the Port Arthur's gates -- Yasukuni jinsha.

Eventually, the Russian warships at Port Arthur were sunk by the artillery of the besieging army. Attempts to relieve the besieged city by land also failed, and, after the Battle of Liaoyang in late August, the Russians retreated to Mukden (Shenyang). Port Arthur finally fell on 2 January 1905 when the garrison's commanding officer ceded the port to the Japanese without consulting his high command.

Baltic Fleet

Meanwhile, at sea, the Russians were preparing to reinforce the Far East Fleet by sending the Baltic Fleet, under Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky The fleet sailed around the world from the Baltic Sea to China via the Cape of Good Hope (because Britain refused the Russian fleet access through the Suez Canal). The Baltic Fleet would not reach the Far East until May 1905.

On 21 October 1904, while passing by the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan but neutral in this war), vessels of the Baltic Fleet nearly provoked a war in the Dogger Bank incident by firing on British fishing boats that they mistook for enemy torpedo boats.

Campaign of 1905

Harsh winter and final battles

Retreat of Russian soldiers after the Battle of Mukden

With the fall of Port Arthur, the Japanese 3rd army was now able to continue northward and reinforce positions south of Russian-held Mukden. With the onset of the severe Manchurian winter, there had been no major land engagements since the Battle of Shaho the previous year. Both sides camped opposite each other along 60 to 70 miles (110 km) of front lines, south of Mukden.

The Russian Second Army under General Oskar Grippenberg, between January 25–29, attacked the Japanese left flank near the town of Sandepu, almost breaking through. This caught the Japanese by surprise. However, without support from other Russian units the attack stalled, Grippenberg was ordered to halt by Kuropatkin and the battle was inconclusive. The Japanese knew that they needed to destroy the Russian army in Manchuria before Russian reinforcements arrived via the Trans-Siberian railroad.

The Battle of Mukden commenced on 20 February 1905. In the following days Japanese forces proceeded to assault the right and left flanks of Russian forces surrounding Mukden, along a 50-mile (80 km) front. Both sides were well entrenched and were backed with hundreds of artillery pieces. After days of harsh fighting, added pressure from both flanks forced both ends of the Russian defensive line to curve backwards. Seeing they were about to be encircled, the Russians began a general retreat, fighting a series of fierce rearguard actions, which soon deteriorated in the confusion and collapse of Russian forces. On 10 March 1905 after three weeks of fighting, General Kuropatkin decided to withdraw to the north of Mukden.

The retreating Russian Manchurian Army formations disintegrated as fighting units, but the Japanese failed to destroy them completely. The Japanese themselves had suffered large casualties and were in no condition to pursue. Although the battle of Mukden was a major defeat for the Russians it had not been decisive, and the final victory would depend on the navy.

Victory at Tsushima

The Russian Second Pacific Squadron (the renamed Baltic Fleet) sailed 18,000 miles (29,000 km) to relieve Port Arthur. The demoralizing news that Port Arthur had fallen reached the fleet while at Madagascar. Admiral Rozhestvensky's only hope now was to reach the port of Vladivostok. There were three routes to Vladivostok, with the shortest and most direct passing through Tsushima Straits between Korea and Japan. However, this was also the most dangerous route as it passed very close to the Japanese home islands.

Japanese battleship Mikasa, the flagship of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō at the Battle of Tsushima.

Admiral Togo was aware of the Russian progress and understood that with the fall of Port Arthur, the Second and Third Pacific Squadrons would try to reach the only other Russian port in the Far East, Vladivostok. Battle plans were laid down and ships were repaired and refitted to intercept the Russian fleet.

The Japanese Combined Fleet, which had originally consisted of six battleships, was now down to four (two had been lost to mines), but still retained its cruisers, destroyers, and torpedo boats. The Second Pacific Squadron contained eight battleships, including four new battleships of the Borodino class, as well as cruisers, destroyers and other auxiliaries for a total of 38 ships.

By the end of May the Second Pacific Squadron was on the last leg of its journey to Vladivostok. They decided to take the shorter, riskier route between Korea and Japan. They travelled at night so they might not be discovered. Unfortunately for the Russians, one of their hospital ships exposed a light, which was sighted by the Japanese armed merchant cruiser Shinano Maru. Wireless communication was used to inform Togo's headquarters, where the Combined Fleet was immediately ordered to sortie. Still receiving naval intelligence from scouting forces, the Japanese were able to position their fleet so that they would "cross the T" of the Russian fleet. The Japanese engaged the Russian fleet in the Tsushima Straits on 27 May–28 May 1905. The Russian fleet was virtually annihilated, losing eight battleships, numerous smaller vessels, and more than 5,000 men, while the Japanese lost three torpedo boats and 117 men. Only three Russian vessels escaped to Vladivostok. After the Battle of Tsushima, the Japanese army occupied the entire Sakhalin Islands chain to force the Russians to ask for peace.

Military attachés and observers

Japanese General Kuroki and his staff, including foreign officers and war correspondents after the Battle of Shaho (1904).

Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Most were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat like what is now termed "embedded" positions within the land and naval forces of both Russia and Japan. These military attachés and other observers prepared voluminous first-hand accounts of the war and analytical papers. In-depth observer narratives of the war and more narrowly-focused professional journal articles were written soon after the war; and these post-war reports conclusively illustrated the battlefield destructiveness of this conflict. This was the first time the tactics of entrenched positions for infantry defended with machine guns and artillery became vitally important, and both were dominant factors in World War I. From a 21st century perspective, it is now apparent that tactical lessons which were available to the observer nations were disregarded or not used in the preparations for war in Europe and during the course of World War I.^[11]

In 1904–1905, Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton was the military attaché of the British Indian Army serving with the Japanese army in Manchuria. Amongst the several military attachés from Western countries, he was the first to arrive in Japan after the start of the war.^[12] As the earliest, he would be recognized as the dean of multi-national attachés and observers in this conflict; but he was out-ranked by a soldier who would become a better known figure, British Field Marshal William Gustavus Nicholson, 1st Baron Nicholson, later to become Chief of the Imperial General Staff.^{[citation needed]}

Peace and aftermath

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Treaty of Portsmouth

Negotiating the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905). From left to right: the Russians at far side of table are Korostovetz, Navohoff, Witte, Rosen, Plancoff; and the Japanese at near side of table are Adachi, Ochiai, Komura, Takahira, Sato. The large conference table is today preserved at the Museum Meiji Mura in Inuyama, Aichi Prefecture, Japan.

The defeats of the Russian Army and Navy shook Russian confidence. Throughout 1905, the Imperial Russian government was rocked by revolution. Tsar Nicholas II elected to negotiate peace so he could concentrate on internal matters.^{[citation needed]}

United States President Theodore Roosevelt offered to mediate, and earned a Nobel Peace Prize for his effort. Sergius Witte led the Russian delegation and Baron Komura, a graduate of Harvard, led the Japanese Delegation. The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed on 5 September 1905^[13] in the U.S. naval station in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Witte became Russian Prime Minister the same year.^{[citation needed]}

However, a peace treaty with Montenegro was not signed by the Japanese and a state of war technically remained with the country until its 1918 inclusion in the State of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which inherited foreign relations of Kingdom of Serbia. The issue resurfaced after the Montenegro's decision to leave the union with Serbia in 2006 (see List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity).^{[citation needed]}

Russia recognized Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence and agreed to evacuate Manchuria. Japan would annex Korea in 1910, with scant protest from other powers.^{[citation needed]}

Russia also signed over its 25-year leasehold rights to Port Arthur, including the naval base and the peninsula around it. Russia also ceded the southern half of Sakhalin Island to Japan. It was regained by the USSR in 1952 under the Treaty of San Francisco following the Second World War.^{[citation needed]}

Casualties

A Japanese propaganda of the war: woodcut print showing Tsar Nicholas II waking from a nightmare of the battered and wounded Russian forces returning from battle. Artist Kobayashi Kiyochika, 1904 or 1905.

Sources do not agree on a precise number of deaths from the war because of lack of body counts for confirmation. The number of Japanese dead in combat is put at around 47,000 KIA with around 80,000 if disease is included. Estimates of Russian dead range from around 40,000 to around 70,000. The total number of dead is generally stated at around 130,000.^[14] China suffered 20,000 collateral deaths, and financially the loss amounted to over 69 million taels worth of silver.

Political consequences

This was the first major victory of an Asian power over a European one in the modern era. Russia's defeat had been met with shock both in the West and across the Far East, that an Asian country could defeat an established European power in a large military conflict. Japan's prestige rose greatly as it began to be considered a modern Great Power. Concurrently, Russia lost virtually its entire Pacific and Baltic fleets, and also lost international esteem. This was particularly true in the eyes of Germany and Austria–Hungary; Russia was France and Serbia's ally, and that loss of prestige had a significant effect on Germany's future when planning for war with France, and Austria–Hungary's war with Serbia.^{[citation needed]}

In the absence of Russian competition and with the distraction of European nations during World War I, combined with the Great Depression which followed, the Japanese military began its efforts to dominate China and the rest of Asia, which eventually led to the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, theatres of World War II.

Revolution in Russia

Popular discontent in Russia after the war added more fuel to the already simmering Russian Revolution of 1905, an event Tsar Nicholas II of Russia had hoped to avoid entirely by taking intransigent negotiating stances prior to coming to the table at all. In ten more years, that discontent boiled over into the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. In Poland and Lithuania, which Russia partitioned in the late 18th century, and where Russian rule already caused two major uprisings, the population was so restless that an army of 250,000–300,000 – larger than the one facing the Japanese – had to be stationed to put down the unrest.^[15] Notably, some political leaders of Polish insurrection movement (in particular, Józef Piłsudski) sent emissaries to Japan to collaborate on sabotage and intelligence gathering within the Russian Empire and even plan a Japanese-aided uprising.^[16]

In Russia, the defeat of 1905 led in the short term to a reform of the Russian military that allowed it to face Germany in World War I. However, the revolts at home following the war planted the seeds that presaged the Russian Revolution of 1917.

All above dates are believed to be New-Style (Gregorian, not the Julian used in Tsarist Russia: for conformity, where there are two, use the one that reads 13 days "later" than the other).

Effects on Japan

Although the war had ended in a victory for Japan, there was a noteworthy gap between Japanese public opinion and the very restrained peace terms which negotiated at the war's end.^[17] Widespread discontent spread through the populace upon the announcement of the treaty terms. Riots erupted in major cities in Japan. Two specific demands, expected from such a costly victory, were especially lacking: territorial gains and monetary reparations to Japan. The peace accord led to feelings of distrust, as the Japanese had intended to retain all of Sakhalin Island, but they were forced to settle for half of it after being pressured by the US.^{[citation needed]}

European Balance of Power

Russia's defeat in 1905 critically destabilized the existing European balance of power existing between the Franco-Russian alliance and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. Germany was the first to attempt to make use of this, culminating in a short-lived Russo-German alliance under the treaty of Björkö. However, Germany's reluctance to provide the much needed financial aid to Russia and the Russian court's general preference for the continuation of the French alliance led to the cancellation of the treaty^[18]. Furthermore, Russia's weakness following its defeat finally made it willing to negotiate with Great Britain over the Central Asian conflict, resulting in the Anglo-Russian entente of 1907^[19]. As a result, Germany felt encircled by enemy powers, while at the same time confident of being able to take on the military challenge due to Russia's apparent weakness. As the Russian military recovered and reformed at a remarkable pace in the following years, German military leaders, Moltke the Younger in particular, began to feel that time was slipping away for an opportune moment for war with Russia^[20]. The consequence, according to many historians, was the readiness of most European nations to go to war at the time of Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination, resulting in the outbreak of World War I.

Assessment of war results

Russia had lost two of its three fleets. Only its Black Sea Fleet remained, and this was the result of an earlier treaty that had prevented the fleet from leaving the Black Sea. Japan became the sixth-most powerful naval force,^[21] while the Russian navy declined to one barely stronger than that of Austria–Hungary.^[21] The actual costs of the war were large enough to have affected the Russian economy; and despite grain exports, the nation developed an external balance of payments deficit. The cost of military re-equipment and re-expansion after 1905 pushed the economy further into deficit, although the size of the deficit was obscured.^[22]

Japanese soldiers' corpses in a trench, with Russian soldiers looking on.

A lock of Admiral Nelson's hair was given to the Imperial Japanese Navy from the Royal Navy after the war to commemorate the victory of the Battle of Tsushima, which was in tune with Britain's victory in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. It is still on display at Kyouiku Sankoukan, a public museum maintained by the Japan Self-Defense Force.

The Japanese were on the offensive for most of the war and used massed infantry human wave attacks against defensive positions, which would be the standard of all European armies during World War I. Battles during the Russo-Japanese War were a precursor to trench warfare of World War I,^{[citation needed]} in which machine guns and artillery had taken their toll on Japanese troops. Jakob Meckel, a German military advisor sent to Japan, had a tremendous impact on the development of the Japanese military training, tactics, strategy and organization. His reforms were credited with Japan's overwhelming victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. However, his over-reliance on the use of infantry in offensive campaigns also led to the large number of Japanese casualties.

Military and economic exhaustion affected both countries.^{[citation needed]} Japanese historians consider this war to be a turning point for Japan, and a key to understanding the reasons why Japan may have failed militarily and politically later on. The acrimony was felt at every level of Japanese society and it became the consensus within Japan that their nation had been treated as the defeated power during the peace conference.^{[citation needed]} As time went on, this feeling, coupled with the sense of "arrogance" of becoming a Great Power^{[citation needed]}, grew and added to their growing hostility towards the West and fueled their own military and imperial ambitions, which would culminate in Japan's invasion of East, Southeast, and South Asia in World War II in an attempt to create their own great colonial empire in the name of creating the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. Only five years after the war, Japan de jure annexed Korea as its colonial empire, and invaded Manchuria in the Mukden Incident 21 years after in 1931. As a result, most Chinese historians note the war as a key development of Japanese militarism.

Not only Russia and Japan were affected by the war. As a consequence, the British Admiralty enlarged its docks at Auckland, Bombay, Fremantle, Hong Kong, Simonstown, Singapore and Sydney.^[23] The 1904–1905 war confirmed the direction of the admiralty's thinking in tactical terms while undermining its strategic grasp of a changing world.^[24] For example, the Admiralty's tactical orthodoxy assumed that a naval battle would imitate the conditions of stationary combat, and that ships would engage in one long line sailing on parallel courses; but in reality, more flexible tactical thinking would be required in the next war. A firing ship and its target would maneuver independently at various ranges and at various speeds and in convergent or divergent courses.^[25]

List of battles

• 1904 Battle of Port Arthur, 8 February: naval battle Inconclusive
• 1904 Battle of Chemulpo Bay, 9 February: naval battle Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Yalu River, 30 April to 1 May: Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Nanshan, 25 May – 26 May, Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Telissu, 14 June – 15 June , Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Motien Pass, 17 July, Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Ta-shih-chiao, 24 July, Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Hsimucheng, 31 July, Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of the Yellow Sea, 10 August: naval battle Japanese victory strategically/tactically inconclusive
• 1904 Battle off Ulsan, 14 August: naval battle Japanese victory
• 1904–1905 Siege of Port Arthur, 19 August to 2 January: Japanese victory
• 1904 Battle of Liaoyang, 25 August to 3 September: Inconclusive
• 1904 Battle of Shaho, 5 October to 17 October: Inconclusive
• 1905 Battle of Sandepu, 26 January to 27 January: Inconclusive
• 1905 Battle of Mukden, 21 February to 10 March: Japanese victory
• 1905 Battle of Tsushima, 27 May to 28 May naval battle: Japanese victory

Art and literature

Painting of Admiral Togo on the bridge of the Japanese battleship Mikasa, before the Battle of Tsushima in 1905.

World attention to this military conflict inspired unanticipated consequences in art and literature:

• Between 1904-05 in Russia, the war was covered by anonymous satirical graphic luboks that were sold at common markets and recorded much of the war for the domestic audience. Around 300 were made before their creation was banned by the Russian government.
• The Russo-Japanese War was covered by dozens of foreign journalists who sent back sketches that were turned into lithographs and other reproducible forms. Propaganda images were circulated by both sides and quite a few photographs have been preserved.
• Siege of Port Arthur is covered in the historical novel 'Port Arthur' by Alexander Stepanov (1892–1965), who, at the age of 12, lived in the besieged city and witnessed many key events of the siege. He took a personal role in Port Arthur defense by carrying water to front line trenches; was contused; narrowly evaded amputation of both legs while in the hospital. His father, Nikolay Stepanov, commanded one of Russian onshore batteries protecting the harbor; through him Alexander personally knew many top military commanders of the city – generals Stessels, Belikh, Nikitin, Kondratenko, admiral Makarov and many others. The novel itself was written in 1932, based on the author's own diaries and notes of his father; although it might be subject to ideological bias, as anything published in the USSR at that time, it was (and still is) generally considered in Russia one of the best historical novels of Soviet period.^[26]
• The Russo-Japanese War is occasionally alluded to in James Joyce's novel, Ulysses. In the "Eumaeus" chapter, a drunken sailor in a bar proclaims, "But a day of reckoning, he stated crescendo with no uncertain voice—thoroughly monopolizing all the conversation—was in store for mighty England, despite her power of pelf on account of her crimes. There would be a fall and the greatest fall in history. The Germans and the Japs were going to have their little lookin, he affirmed."
• The Russo-Japanese War is the setting for the naval strategy computer game Distant Guns developed by Storm Eagle Studios.
• The Russo-Japanese War is the setting for the first part of the novel The Diamond Vehicle, in the Erast Fandorin detective series by Boris Akunin.
• The Domination series by S.M. Stirling has an alternate Battle of Tsushima where the Japanese use airships to attack the Russian Fleet. This is detailed in the short story "Written by the Wind" by Roland J. Green in the Drakas! anthology.
• American lawyer, Japanologist and later diplomat Henry Pike Bowie caused a memorial gate to be erected in 1909 in honor of the valor of Japanese sailors and soldiers during the Russo-Japanese War. The memorial structure in Burlingame, California was created by Japanese craftsmen brought from Japan specifically for the project.^[27]

See also

• Imperialism in Asia
• Liancourt Rocks#International dispute
• List of wars
• Russian Imperialism in Asia and the Russo-Japanese War

Notes

References

• Connaughton, R.M., The War of the Rising Sun and the Tumbling Bear—A Military History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904–5, London, 1988, ISBN 0-415-00906-5.
• Paine, S.C.M., The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy, 2003, ISBN 0-521-81714-5
• Corbett, Sir Julian. Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. (1994) Originally classified, and in two volumnes, ISBN 155-7501-297.
• Tolf, Robert W. (1976). The Russian Rockefellers: the saga of the Nobel family and the Russian oil industry. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. ISBN 978-0-8179-6581-5. 
• Grant, R., Captain, D.S.O. Before Port Arthur In A Destroyer. (The Personal Diary Of A Japanese Naval Officer – Translated from the Spanish Edition by Captain R. Grant, D.S.O. Rifle Brigade). John Murray, Albemarle St. W. (1907).
• Hough, Richard A. The Fleet That Had To Die. Ballantine Books. (1960).
• Jukes, Geoffry. The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. Osprey Essential Histories. (2002). ISBN 9-78184-17644-67.
• Kowner, Rotem. Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War. Scarecrow (2006). ISBN 0-8108-4927-5.
• Kowner, Rotem (ed.). The Impact of the Russo-Japanese War. Routledge (2007). ISBN 0-4153-6824-3.
• Morris, Edmund (2002). Theodore Rex[1]. New York: Random House. 10-ISBN 0-812-96600-7; 13-ISBN 978-0-812-96600-8
• Novikov-Priboy, Aleksei. Tsushima. (An account from a seaman aboard the Battleship Oryol (which was captured at Tsushima). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. (1936).
• Nish, Ian Hill. The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War. London: Longman (1985) 0-582-49114-2
• Oyama, Hisashi and Gōtarō Ogawa. (1923). Expenditures of the Russo-Japanese War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 1806896
• Okamoto, Shumpei. The Japanese Oligarchy and the Russo-Japanese War. Columbia University Press (1970).
• Pleshakov, Constantine. The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima (2002). ISBN 0-46505-792-6. .
• Saaler, Sven und Inaba Chiharu (Hg.). Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg 1904/05 im Spiegel deutscher Bilderbogen, Deutsches Institut für Japanstudien Tokyo, (2005).
• Seager, Robert. Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man And His Letters. (1977) ISBN 0870-21359-8.
• Semenov, Vladimir, Capt. The Battle of Tsushima. E.P. Dutton & Co. (1912).
• Semenov, Vladimir, Capt. Rasplata (The Reckoning). John Murray, (1910).
• Strachan, Hew. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10-ISBN 0-199-26191-1; 13-ISBN 978-0-199-26191-8
• Tomitch, V. M. Warships of the Imperial Russian Navy. Volume 1, Battleships. (1968).
• Warner, Denis & Peggy. The Tide at Sunrise, A History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. (1975). ISBN 0-7146-5256-3.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Russo-Japanese War

• Russo-Japanese War research society
• Text of the Treaty of Portsmouth: http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1914m/portsmouth.html
• Russian Navy history of war: http://www.navy.ru/history/hrn10-e.htm
• Meeting of Frontiers (Library of Congress): Russo-Japanese Relations in the Far East
• Treaty of Portsmouth now seen as global turning point from the Christian Science Monitor, by Robert Marquand, 30 December 2005
• The New Student's Reference Work/Russo-Japanese War
• Montenegrins in the Russo-Japanese War (Montenegrin)
• Kuliabin A. Semin S.Russia - a counterbalancing agent to the Asia. “Zavtra Rossii”, #28, 17 July 1997
• Database of Russian Army Jewish soldiers injured, killed, or missing in action from the war: http://www.bfcollection.net/fast/rjmain.html