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Salvia divinorum

 
Wikipedia: Salvia divinorum
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Salvia divinorum
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Salvia
Species: S. divinorum
Binomial name
Salvia divinorum
Epling & Játiva[1]

Salvia divinorum (Diviner's Sage,[2] ska María Pastora,[3] Sage of the Seers,[4] or colloquially by its genus name Salvia) is a psychoactive herb which can induce dissociative effects. It is a herbaceous perennial in the Lamiaceae (mint) family. The specific name, Salvia divinorum, was given because of its traditional use in divination and healing[5]—it literally translates to "diviner's sage" or "seer's sage".[6][nb 1]

Salvia divinorum has a long and continuing tradition of religious use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans, who use it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions.[1] Its native habitat is within the isolated Sierra Mazateca cloud forest in Oaxaca, Mexico, growing within shaded and moist areas.[7][8] It grows to well over a meter in height.[1] It has hollow square stems, large green leaves, and occasional white flowers with purple bracts. Botanists have not determined whether it is a cultigen or a hybrid.[9][7]

Its primary psychoactive constituent is a diterpenoid known as salvinorin A,[10][11] which is a potent κ-opioid receptor agonist. Salvinorin A is unique in that it is the only naturally occurring substance known to induce a psychedelic state this way. Salvia divinorum can be chewed, smoked, or taken as a tincture to produce experiences ranging from laughter to much more intense and profoundly altered states. The duration of effects is much briefer than those of other psychoactive compounds, typically only minutes in length.

The most commonly reported after-effects include an improved mood and sensations of insight, calmness, and connection with nature—though rarely it may also cause dysphoria.[12] Salvia divinorum is generally understood to be of low toxicity (high LD50)[13][14] and low addictive potential;[15][16] as a κ-opioid agonist, it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions.[17][18]

Media stories generally raise alarms over Salvia's legal status and are sometimes headlined with scientifically ill-founded comparisons to LSD or other psychoactive substances. Parental concerns are raised by focusing on salvia's usage by younger teens—the emergence of YouTube videos purporting to depict its use being an area of particular concern in this respect. The isolated and controversial case of Brett Chidester, a 17-year-old Delaware student who purchased salvia some four months prior to committing suicide in January 2006, received much media attention.

Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries and, within the United States, is legal in the majority of states. However, some have called for its prohibition. While not currently regulated by US federal drug laws, the DEA has listed Salvia as a "drug of concern" and several states have passed laws criminalizing the substance.[19] Most of the proposed state bills have not been made into law, with motions having been voted down in committee, failed, died, or otherwise stalled. There have not been many publicised prosecutions of individuals violating anti-salvia laws in the few countries and states in which it has been made illegal.[nb 2]

Salvia legislation may prove difficult to police. The plant has a nondescript appearance; unlike cannabis the leaves are not distinctive and it does not have a distinctive odour. Salvia divinorum looks like and can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high-power lights.[24][25]


Contents

History

Salvia divinorum is native to certain areas of the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, where it is still used by the Mazatec. While it is primarily taken to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination, it is also used remedially at lower dosages. For example, it is prescribed as a diuretic and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as panzón de borrego, or a swollen belly (literally, "lamb belly").[11][15]

The history of the plant is not well known, and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin. Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area; a cultigen of the Mazatecs; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group. Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen.[26]

Flowering Salvia divinorum

Academic discovery

Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism.[27] He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials.[28] It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert.[29]

Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli, the "Noble Prince" of the Aztec codices.[3][30] Wasson's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists, with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés,[31] and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson's theory from Jonathan Ott.[4]

The identity of another mysterious Aztec entheogen, namely that of poyomatli, has also been suggested as being Salvia divinorum.[32] Here too there are other candidate plants, notably Cacahuaxochitl (Quararibea funebris),[33] again suggesting that there is no overall consensus.

Recent history

Salvia divinorum has become both increasingly well-known and available in modern culture. The Internet has allowed for the growth of many businesses selling live salvia plants, dried leaves, extracts, and other preparations.

Medical experts as well as accident and emergency rooms have not been reporting cases that suggest particular salvia-related health concerns, and police have not been reporting it as a significant issue with regard to public order offences. In any case, Salvia divinorum has attracted negative attention from the media and some lawmakers.[34][35]

Botany

Botanical description

Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, growing in the cloud forest at elevations from 1,000 to 6,000 feet (300 to 1,800 m). Its most common habitat is fertile soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity. The square stems break easily and tend to trail on the ground, rooting easily at the nodes and internodes. Salvia divinorum has large green leaves with a yellow undertone that reach 4 to 12 inches (10 to 30 cm) long, with no hairs on either surface, and little or no petiole.[36]

It grows to well over a meter in height.[1] It has hollow square stems, large green leaves, and occasional white flowers with purple bracts. Botanists have not determined whether it is a cultigen or a hybrid.[9][7]

The flowers, which bloom only rarely, grow in whorls on a 12-inch (30 cm) inflorescence, with about six flowers to each whorl. The 1+1⁄4-inch (3 cm) white flowers are curved and covered with hairs, held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands. The plant grows to well over 1 metre (3 ft) in height. It has found very little use in horticulture because of the plant's lack of flowering.[1][36] Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas, based on Epling and Játiva's description. The first plant material they received was dried, so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson, who didn't realize that their "blue flowers, crowned with a white dome" were in fact blue calyces with unopened white corollas.[37]

Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower. All of the Mazatec populations appear to be clonal, with propagation done through cuttings and layering. For an unknown reason, pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced. There is no active pollen tube inhibition within the style, but some event or process after the pollen tube reaches the ovary is aberrant. The likeliest explanations are inbreeding depression or hybridity.[7]

Taxonomy

Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939, but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites.

Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species. In 1962 Albert Hofmann, the discoverer of LSD, and R. Gordon Wasson, an ethnomycologist researching Mazatec rituals, traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca looking for specimens of the plant. They were unable to locate live plants, but the Mazatec gave them some flowering specimens.[27] These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva, who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum, after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec.[5] By 1985, up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found.[36]

Botanists have been unable to conclusively determine whether Salvia divinorum is a hybrid or a cultigen.[7][8][nb 3] The plant's partial sterility is suggestive of a hybrid origin, though no two parent species have been found with an obvious affinity to Salvia divinorum.[7]

One potential parent is Salvia cyanea (a synonym for Salvia concolor), which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum.[38][39][nb 4] The other possibility for the plant's partial sterility is that long-term cultivation and selection have produced an inbred cultigen.[7] The origin of Salvia divinorum is still a mystery, one of only three plants in the genus Salvia with unknown origins—the other two are Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii.[40]

Strains

The genetics of Salvia divinorum are limited, especially outside of their native range. There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct collections, that collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell (the Bunnell strain), colloquially mis-attributed as the Wasson-Hoffman strain; the other being collected from Huautla de Jiménez in 1991 by anthropologist Bret Blosser (the Blosser or Palatable strain).[41][42][43]

There are other strains that are not as well documented as well, such as the Luna strain (possibly Bunnell) mutant isolated from a Hawaiian patch of Salvia divinorum clones, featuring unusually serrated and rounded rather than ovate leaves.[44]

Habitat

Native habitat is within the isolated Sierra Mazateca cloud forest in Oaxaca, Mexico, growing within shaded and moist habitat.[7][8]

Cultivation

From cuttings

Cuttings can be made from 20-30 cm sections of plant, (cut with a clean sharp knife, rooted in water), taking care to remove bottom leaves to restore osmotic potential[45]. Cuttings should be kept moist with daily misting, and out of direct sunlight[46].

Rooted cuttings,1-2 inches in length, can be fertilized (weak application, about 1/2 strength) about a month after being transplanted into soil medium. Plants perform well in light shade, with fewer than 3-4 hours of direct or afternoon light.[47] They require a high humidity environment, as well as high soil moisture (though not overly so due to root rot) in order to thrive.[48]

Flowering

Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours (beginning in mid-October in some places), necessitating a shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution (HPS)[49]

Chemistry

For more details on this topic, see Salvinorin A.
Salvinorin A

The known active constituent of Salvia divinorum is a trans-neoclerodane diterpenoid known as Salvinorin A (chemical formula C23H28O8).[50] This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0.18%.[4]

Similar to many psychoactive herbs, Salvia divinorum synthesizes and excretes its active constituent (Salvinorin A) via trichomes, of the peltate-glandular morphology, located just beneath the cuticle (subcuticular) layer.[51][52]

Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid, as it does not contain a basic nitrogen atom, unlike most other known opioid receptor ligands.[53]

Potency

By mass, salvinorin A is the most potent naturally-occurring psychoactive compound known.[54][55] It is active at doses as low as 200 µg.[29][50][55] Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ-Opioid (kappa-Opioid) receptor agonist.[50][56] It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by κ-Opioid receptor antagonists.[16]

This makes it unlikely that another mechanism contributes independently to the compound's effects. Salvinorin A is unique in that it is the only naturally occurring substance known to induce a visionary state via this mode of action. Salvinorin A has no actions at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of 'classic' hallucinogens, such as mescaline and LSD.[16]

Salvinorin's potency should not be confused with toxicity. Rodents chronically exposed to dosages many times greater than those to which humans are exposed did not show signs of organ damage.[13]

Other terpenoids

Main article: Salvinorin_A#Salvinorins_A_-_F.2C_J

Many other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum, including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins.[57] None of these compounds has shown significant (sub-micromolar) affinity at the κ-Opioid receptor, and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant's psychoactivity.[58][59]

Other pharmaceutical action

Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility (e.g. diarrhea), through a combination of k-opioid and cannabinoid (mainly CB1 receptor) receptors in inflamed but not normal gut in vivo. The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as 'prejunctional', as it was able to modify electrically-induced contractions, but not those of exogenous acetylcholine[60]

A pharmacologically-important aspect of the contraction-reducing properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue, thus reducing possible side-effects.[61]

Ingestion

Traditional methods

Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 (about 50g/2 oz to 200g/7 oz.) or more fresh leaves. They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or 'tea' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies.[15]

Modern methods

About half a gram of a 25x Salvia divinorum extract.

Salvia divinorum is becoming more widely known and used in modern culture. The National Survey on Drug Use and Health, an annual US based survey sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), for 2006 estimated that about 1.8 million persons aged 12 or older had used Salvia divinorum in their lifetime, of which approximately 750,000 had done so in that year.[62] Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf, or using a tincture, as described in the following sections.

Smoking

A pipebowl of Salvia divinorum.

Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe, but most users prefer the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke.[63] The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high (about 240°C). A regular flame will work, but the direct application of something more intense, such as the flame produced from a butane torch lighter, is often preferred.[63]

Some people find that untreated dried salvia leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects.[64] Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves, have become widely available. The enhanced leaf is often described by a number followed by an x (such as "5x," "10x," etc), the multiplication factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of leaf concentrate. The numbers therefore may also be roughly indicative of the relative concentration of the active principle, (salvinorin A), but the measure should not be taken as absolute. Overall extract potency will depend on the (naturally varying) strength of the untreated leaf used in preparing the extract, as well as the efficiency of the extraction process itself. Extracts reduce the overall amount of inhalations needed to ingest a given amount of active principle, thus facilitating more powerful experiences.[65]

Chewing

The method of chewing the leaves may also be employed. However, salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested, as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system.[66] Therefore, the 'quid' of leaves is held in the mouth as long as possible in order to facilitate absorption of the active constituents through the oral mucosa. Chewing consumes more of the plant than smoking, and produces a longer-lasting experience.

Using a tincture

Less commonly, some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture. This is administered sublingually, usually with the aid of a glass dropper. It may be taken diluted with water just before use, which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects, but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol. Tinctures vary in potency, and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense visionary one.[64]

Duration of effect

If salvia is smoked the main effects are experienced quickly. The most intense 'peak' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for about 1–5 minutes, followed by a gradual tapering back. At 5–10 minutes, less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist, but giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to recognizable baseline after about 15 to 20 minutes.[67]

Chewing the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly, over a period of 10 to 20 minutes, the experience then lasting from another 30 minutes up to one and a half hours.[67]

When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion, though may be significantly more intense, depending on extract potency.[64]

Immediate effects

Psychedelic experiences are necessarily somewhat subjective and variations in reported effects are to be expected. Aside from individual reported experiences there has been a limited amount of published work summarising the effects. D.M. Turner's book Salvinorin—The Psychedelic Essence of Salvia Divinorum quotes Daniel Siebert's summarisation, mentioning that the effects may include:[68]

An example of salvia-inspired visionary art
  • Uncontrollable laughter
  • Past memories, such as revisiting places from childhood memory
  • Sensations of motion, or being pulled or twisted by forces
  • Visions of membranes, films and various two-dimensional surfaces
  • Merging with or becoming objects
  • Overlapping realities, such as the perception of being in several locations at once

A survey of salvia users found that 38% described the effects as unique. 23% said the effects were like yoga, meditation or trance.[69]

Media reporters rarely venture to take salvia themselves, but one firsthand journalistic account has been published in the UK science magazine New Scientist:

the salvia took me on a consciousness-expanding journey unlike any other I have ever experienced. My body felt disconnected from 'me' and objects and people appeared cartoonish, surreal and marvellous. Then, as suddenly as it had began, it was over. The visions vanished and I was back in my bedroom. I spoke to my 'sitter'—the friend who was watching over me, as recommended on the packaging—but my mouth was awkward and clumsy. When I attempted to stand my coordination was off. Within a couple of minutes, however, I was fine and clear-headed, though dripping with sweat. The whole experience had lasted less than 5 minutes.
—Gaia 2006-09-29 (UK Media)

There have been few books published on the subject. One notable example is Dale Pendell's work "Phamako/Poeia—Plants Powers, Poisons, and Herbcraft", which won the 1996 Firecracker Alternative Book Award[70] and has a chapter dedicated to Salvia divinorum. It includes some experience accounts:

It's very intense, I call it a reality stutter, or a reality strobing. I think that having been a test pilot, and flying in that unforgiving environment with only two feet between our wingtips, helped to prepare me for this kind of exploration.
—Pendell 1995

Some have written extensive prose and/or poetry about their experiences.[71][72] Some describe their visions pictorially, and there exist examples of visionary art which claim to be salvia-inspired. Others claim musical inspiration from the plant: examples are the songs "Salvia divinorum" by 1200 Micrograms, "Salvia" by Deepwater Sunshine, and "Flight 77" by Paul Dereas.[72]

Cautionary notes

Dale Pendell expresses some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia. In its natural form salvia is more balanced and benevolent, and quite strong enough, he argues. High strength extracts on the other hand can show "a more precipitous, and more terrifying, face" and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience.[73]

The Salvia divinorum User's Guide hosted on Daniel Siebert's website recommends having a sitter present if you are new to salvia, are experimenting with a stronger form, or are using a more effective method of ingestion than you have before.

An experienced salvia user who is chewing a quid, may often choose to do it alone, and may be quite safe in doing so. But having a pleasant, sensible, sober sitter is an absolute must if you are trying vaporization, smoking high doses of extract-enhanced leaves, or using pure salvinorin.
—Salvia divinorum User's Guide

The guide says that while the effects of salvia are generally quite different from those of alcohol, like alcohol, it impairs coordination. It also emphasizes that salvia is not a party drug.

Salvia is not 'fun' in the way that alcohol or cannabis can be. If you try to party with salvia you probably will not have a good experience. Salvia is a consciousness-changing herb that can be used in a vision quest, or in a healing ritual. In the right setting, salvia makes it possible to see visions. It is an herb with a long tradition of sacred use. It is useful for deep meditation. It is best taken in a quiet, nearly dark room; either alone, or with one or two good friends present.
—Salvia divinorum User's Guide

After-effects

Short term

After the peak effects, normal awareness-of-self and the immediate surroundings return but lingering effects may be felt. These short-term lingering effects have a completely different character than the peak experience. About half of users report a pleasing 'afterglow', or pleasant state of mind following the main effects. Researchers from the University of California and California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute conducted a survey of 500 salvia users which identified that they 'sometimes or often' experience certain effects, including:[12]

Increased insight: 47% Decreased insight: 1.8%
Improved mood: 44.8% Worsened mood: 4.0%
Increased connection with Universe or Nature: 39.8%    Decreased connection with Universe or Nature: 5.4%
Increased sweating: 28.2% Decreased sweating: 1.6%
Body felt warm or hot: 25.2% Body felt cold: 6.4%
Increased self-confidence: 21.6% Decreased self-confidence: 2.4%
Improved concentration: 19.4% Difficulty concentrating: 12.0%

Other commonly reported effects include:

  • Feelings of calmness: 42.2%
  • Weird thoughts: 36.4%
  • Things seeming unreal: 32.4%
  • Floating feelings: 32%
  • Mind racing: 23.2%
  • Feeling lightheaded: 22.2%

Long term

Differing studies suggest no overall consensus so far with regard to the long-term effects of Salvia divinorum on mood. It is well-established that some k-opioid agonists can cause dysphoria in humans,[74] and research using rats in forced-swim tests (where they're forced to swim in a narrow cylinder from which they cannot escape) has been used to suggest that Salvia divinorum may have "depressive-like" effects.[75] However, a report has been published detailing an individual case of Salvia divinorum use as self-medicated treatment for depression,[76] and Baggott's survey of 500 people with firsthand experience of salvia found that 25.8% of respondents reported improved mood and "antidepressant-like effects" lasting 24 hours or longer. Only 4.4% reported persisting (24 hours or more) negative effects (most often anxiety) on at least one occasion.[69]

It has been suggested that the long-term effects of Salvia use may include déjà vu.[77] The Baggott survey found little evidence of addictive potential (chemical dependence) in its survey population. 0.6% percent of respondents reported feeling addicted to or dependent on salvia at some point, and 1.2% reported strong cravings. About this the researchers said "there were too few of these individuals to interpret their reports with any confidence".

Most users report no hangover or negative after-effects (e.g. Withdrawal, Comedown (drugs) or Rebound effect) the next day. This is consistent with the apparent low toxicity of Salvia indicated by research conducted at the University of Nebraska.[13]

Therapeutic potential

Aside from individual reports of self-medicated use in the treatment of depression,[76][78] research suggests that Salvia divinorum, in line with the studied effects of other k-opioid agonists,[79] may have further therapeutic potential.

Thomas Prisinzano, assistant professor of medicinal and natural products chemistry at the University of Iowa, has suggested that salvia may help treat cocaine addiction

You can give a rat free access to cocaine, give them free access to Salvinorin A, and they stop taking cocaine.
—Masis 2007-02-28 (US Media)

Professor Bryan L. Roth, director of the National Institute on Mental Health's Psychoactive Drug Screening Program, has said

We think that drugs derived from the active ingredient could be useful for a range of diseases: Alzheimer's, depression, schizophrenia, chronic pain and even AIDS or HIV.
—Viren 2007-08-23 (US Media)

Clinical pharmacologist John Mendelsohn has also said

There may be some derivatives that could be made that would actually be active against cancer and HIV [...] At the present time, there are a lot of therapeutic targets that have many people excited.

An ABC news story which reported on this went on to suggest "the excitement could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia, as the Drug Enforcement Agency is considering doing right now."[78] A proposed Schedule I classification would mean (among other things) that there's no "currently accepted medical use" as far as the United States government is concerned.[80] Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work.[81][82] Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia's therapeutic promise.[78]

Legal Status and Controversy

The relatively recent emergence of Salvia divinorum in modern Western culture, in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use elsewhere, contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject.

Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or "a gift from the gods",[15][83] to 'threat to society', to be banned as quickly as possible in order to "spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse".[84]

Media stories

Interest in Salvia divinorum has been escalating in the news media—particularly in the United States—where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast.[85]

These stories generally raise alarms over salvia's legal status. Headlining for example with comparisons to LSD,[86][87][88] or describing it as "the new pot"[89] for instance, with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia's use by younger teens.

Story headlines may also include 'danger' keywords, such as "Dangerous Herb is Legal..."[90] or "Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High".[91]

Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject. In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington, DC on July 11, 2007, the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction "Now, an exclusive I-Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation. What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it".[92]

In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story "A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation", going on to say, "The drug is legal in Texas, at least for now. But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids."[93]

Many salvia media stories headline with comparisons to LSD. However, while LSD and salvia's active constituent salvinorin A may have comparative potencies, in the sense that both can produce their effects with low dosage amounts, they are otherwise quite different. The two substances are not chemically similar or related, as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine. They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects, which manifest themselves over different timescales. The effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD, whose effects can persist for 8–12 hours.[67][94]

YouTube

Another reported issue of concern has been the emergence of YouTube videos showing alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably, apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate.[92][95] In an interview with California-based newspaper the San Francisco Chronicle, published in June 2007, Daniel Siebert was quoted as saying "Those videos are certainly not going to help the situation. They make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous [...]" and "The sad thing is it creates this public image where people don't realize there are sensible ways to use something like this."[96] Just over a year later in September 2008 the New York Times reported how "in state after state [...] the YouTube videos have become Exhibit A in legislative efforts to regulate salvia."

Representative Charles Anderson of Waco, a Republican state lawmaker who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas said, "When you see it, well, it sure makes a believer out of you." Anderson told colleagues at legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car.[nb 5] "What we really worry about," Mr. Anderson said at the hearing, "is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere."[97]

In Massachusetts YouTube videos were shown by a retired police officer in to the public health and judiciary committees as evidence in favour of outlawing it there.[98]

In TV reports Nebraskan Senator Vickie McDonald said, "Anytime anything's on YouTube it's an issue," and "Legislators, parents, grandparents, we need to be on top of these things," [...] "We need to protect our children..."[99][100] Senator McDonald proposed the addition of Salvia divinorum to Schedule I of the Nebraska Uniform Controlled Substances Act, under which possession of salvia would have been considered a Class IV felony with a penalty of up to five years and trafficking would have fallen under a Class III felony with up to a 20 year penalty.

Representative Michael Sak submitted a bill which proposed Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A in the state of Michigan.[101] He said that if people had questions about the deleterious affects of salvia, they should go on YouTube to watch the videos. Sak was asked by a reporter whether he had ever seen a "Girls Gone Wild" video - where drunken college girls are asked to show their breasts, and are rewarded with free T-shirts - and whether that would incite him to try and make alcohol illegal. Sak said he had not had a chance to review the material.[nb 6]

The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube's own community guidelines, which ask users not to "cross the line" and post videos showing "bad stuff" like "drug abuse".[104] The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area.[105]

Public opinion

Despite its growing notoriety in some circles, media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia, with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it.[106] With regard to their coverage of proposals to make salvia illegal in the U.S. state of Maine, Bangor Daily News ran an on-line poll in March 2007 which posed the question "Do you think the state should outlaw the sale of the drug salvia?" to which approximately 70% of respondents answered "no."[107] While this has over 300 reader responses, the poll itself says, that it is "not a scientific survey and should not be used as a gauge of public opinion. It reflects only the opinions of bangordailynews.com readers who have chosen to participate". A similar online poll was conducted in connection with an Indianapolis news channel's story in November 2007, asking the question "Do you believe Indiana should regulate salvia divinorum?". 76% of the poll's respondents were opposed to prohibition (59% preferring age regulations, and 17% no restrictions at all).[108] In March 2008 the Miami Herald ran an online poll in connection with its news story asking the question "Should Florida lawmakers place restrictions on salvia?". Out of over 670 respondents a majority of 79% voted 'No', against 21% who voted 'Yes'.[109]

Again, although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole, some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories.[84][86][93][106][110]

Brett's law

Main article: Brett's law

A particular focus of many US media stories is the long-running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester.[92][106] Chidester was a 17-year old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by climbing into a tent in which a charcoal grill was lit. He died of carbon monoxide poisoning. Reportedly, some months before this, Brett's mother had found out and questioned him about his salvia use. Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation, but his parents do not believe that he was telling the truth. They have argued instead that salvia caused depression and must have been largely to blame for his death. Some of Brett's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think "existence in general is pointless". Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett's suicide note.[106] In any case, law was soon passed in Delaware classifying the herb as a Schedule I controlled substance in that state. This legislation was named "Brett's law" (formally referred to as Senate bill 259).[111]

It was reported on August 3, 2007 that Chidester's parents intended suing 'Ethnosupply'—a Canadian based Internet company that sold Salvia divinorum to Brett some four months before his death. The parents alleged that the distributors knew salvia could be dangerous and failed to warn their son. The lawsuit seeks unspecified punitive damages for their pain and suffering, lost future earnings, funeral expenses, etc.[112]

Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media, there has not been anywhere else, either before or since this controversial incident, any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide, overdose, accidental, or any other kind of death. Regarding this San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented, "It's remarkable that Chidester's parents, and only Chidester's parents, continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed 'controversy' over the risks of Salvia divinorum."[113]

Brett's mother, Kathleen Chidester, has continued campaigning for "Schedule I"-like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware. For example, three years after Brett's death, in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature, saying - "My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the U.S. It's my son's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens."[114]

Legal status

Main article: Legal status of Salvia divinorum
A package of 20x extract leaves

The situation may be subject to future change but at present Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries. Exceptions as of June 2008, countries where there is some form of control, include Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Italy, Japan, Spain, and Sweden.[115][116][19]

In the United Kingdom, following a local newspaper story in October 2005,[117] a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for Salvia divinorum to be banned there. However, it only received 11 signatures.[118] A second Early Day Motion was raised in October 2008 attracting 18 signatures,[119] with it being reported that Mann had also written to the Home Secretary Jacqui Smith. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, the independent body that advises UK government on drugs, has been asked to investigate further.[120]

In such places where Salvia divinorum legislation exists, it varies in its prohibitive degree from country to country. Australia has imposed its strictest 'schedule 9' (US Schedule I equivalent) classification for example, and Italy has also placed salvia in its 'Table I' of controlled substances (also US Schedule I equivalent). Whereas in Spain there are just controls focusing on the commercial trade of Salvia divinorum, and private cultivation (growing your own plants for non-commercial use) is not targeted. In Germany there are also measures targeting commercial sales, i.e. in any shops that are not drugstores.[115][116]

In the United States, salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act but some states, including Delaware, Louisiana, Missouri, Ohio and others, have passed their own laws.[19] Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia, including Alabama, Alaska, California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Many of these proposals have not made it into law, with motions having failed, stalled or otherwise died, for example at committee review stages.[115][116]

National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca (D- California). Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert, who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation,[121] and the Center for Cognitive Liberty & Ethics (CCLE), who sent key members of the US Congress a report on Salvia divinorum and its active principle,[6] along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling Salvia divinorum would negatively impact important research on the plant. The bill did not pass.[122][123][124]

Similar to the international situation, in the United States, where individual state legislation does exist, it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree.

Opinions and arguments

Media and State Representative response against

Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of Salvia echo those of the media. In November 2006, the morning after a story by news channel KSL was aired in Utah, warning its viewers about what it called "this dangerous herb",[90] Representative Paul Ray (R) submitted a bill calling for its Schedule I classification in that state. KSL TV cameras were on Capitol Hill to see the paperwork filed, with KSL reporting "Moments after our story ended, Utah Representative Paul Ray began writing a bill to ban salvia." As he presented the bill Ray said "It was upsetting to see we have a drug of that strength that's legal." and "We're basically going to make it illegal to possess or sell. Period."[125] Ray's action was further supported by the news channel in a subsequent KSL editorial. Viewer feedback was unanimously more critical.[84]

Texas news channel WOAI reported that San Antonio City Councilman Justin Rodriguez and other council members were "appalled to learn the so-called herbal meditation supplement can be bought at local stores", with Rodriguez saying, "I had not heard of it until your story, so thank you for bringing it to light. A lot of my colleagues had never heard of it."[93]

In February 2007, the day after a Fox TV local news story on Salvia had aired in Milwaukee,[89] Wisconsin state lawmaker Sheldon Wasserman, who had never heard of it before, spoke to Fox news in a follow-up report about then wanting to make it a Schedule I controlled substance.[126]

Comparisons to LSD

Comparisons to LSD and particular focus on "protecting our children" are also being echoed by politicians. In June 2007 the Wisconsin State Journal newspaper ran a front page headline cover story about Salvia, reporting that Representative Wasserman (D) had recently begun seeking sponsors for a bill that would ban the manufacture and sale of Salvia divinorum for consumption in Wisconsin. Wasserman was reported as saying "This bill is all about protecting our children" and "I want to stop the Salvia divinorum dealers who are pushing young people to experiment with a potentially dangerous substance."[86]

In connection with his proposals to make Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A Schedule I controlled substances in Oregon, Representative John Lim (R) was quoted as saying "From what I understand this drug is at least as dangerous as marijuana or LSD", and Seth Hatmaker, a spokesman for Lim, "I think it's only a matter of time before we find people addicted to this stuff".[127]

In the state of Illinois, in support of his bill for Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum, Representative Dennis Reboletti (R) wrote in his own website that salvia is a "powerful psychoactive plant which in appearance looks like marijuana but has the psychoactive properties of LSD." and "It's important that we in the legislature are proactive in protecting our children from highly addictive substances" [...] "For a drug to be classified as a Schedule 1 substance signifies that it's a highly dangerous and potentially lethal drug for its user. Hopefully, the passage of my bill will bring attention to "Magic Mint" and help law enforcement combat the future rise of this drug."[128]

Senator John Bulloch (R) reportedly saw a report on an Atlanta television news station about the increased use of Salvia divinorum. He was quoted as saying "I thought, 'Why hasn't somebody already jumped on this?'" before filing Senate Bill 295. "I hurriedly got legislative counsel to draft the bill...Everything that I read about it is it's considered to be a hallucinogenic drug...A lot of the reading that I've found on it says that it gives a quicker and more intense high than LSD." Senator Don Thomas (R) was reported as saying "I just know about the publicity of the dangers of it, and the use of it, so my first impression is to ban anything of that nature."[5]

However, other references and sources indicate that Salvia divinorum does not resemble marijuana, nor do its' psychoactive effects resemble those of LSD, and that Salvia divinorum is not generally understood to be either addictive or toxic.

Operating heavy machinery

Concerns about driving while under the influence of Salvia have also been expressed. Senator Karen Peterson (D), who introduced Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Delaware, said "I, for one, don't want to be driving down Route 1 next to someone who is having an out-of-body experience"[129] and "I thought this is not something that I would want people using driving around the streets of Delaware."[130]

There has not been much evidence to suggest that salvia use is particularly problematic. Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative or imitative nature. North Dakota Senator Randy Christmann (R) stated "We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem"[131] and New Jersey Assemblyman Jack Conners (D) argued "Salvia divinorum use may not be a runway [sic] epidemic, but it's certainly is a phenomenon that warrants attention. We should take preventive steps now to prevent wholesale problems later on"[132]

In October 2005 MP John Mann raised an ultimately unsuccessful Early Day Motion calling for Salvia divinorum to be banned in the UK, saying "The Australians have clearly found a problem with it. There's obviously a risk in people taking it."[117]

Alcohol and tobacco industry lobbying efforts

According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, which indicates the major sources of campaign contributions for U.S. politicians, a large part of contributions to U.S. Congressional campaigns comes from alcohol and tobacco industries.[133]

For example, Oregon Representative John Lim"s third largest individual campaign sponsor in 2006 was the Oregon Beer & Wine Distributors Association[103] Lim(R) argued for Schedule I classification of Salvia in Oregon.

Former Delaware Senator Karen Peterson's second largest group campaign donations in 2006 came from "Beer, Wine & Liquor" industries.[103] Peterson(D) introduced Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Delaware.

Senator Tim Burchett(R) sponsored Salvia legislation in Tennessee. In 2006, his second largest individual campaign donation came from the Tennessee Malt Beverage Association.[103]

In the same period alcohol and tobacco related contributions amounted to the fourth largest industry contributions for Utah Representative Paul Ray(R).[103] Representative Ray submitted a bill calling for Schedule I classification of Salvia in that state.[125]

Alcohol related contributions also featured highly for Illinois Representative Dennis Reboletti(R) "Beer, Wine & Liquor" was his ninth highest industry contributor in 2006 and 2008.[103] Representative Reboletti sponsored a bill for Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Illinois.[134]

Proponents' Arguments

Opponents of more prohibitive measures against Salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine.[135] The worldwide number of alcohol-related deaths is calculated at over 2,000 people per day,[136] in the US the number is over 300 deaths per day.[137] While not objecting to some form of legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation.[115]

Those advocating consideration of Salvia divinorum's potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture, where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament. In light of this it is argued that Salvia divinorum could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen.[138]

Other entheogenic plants with continuing traditions principally of spiritual use include peyote (and other psychoactive cacti), iboga, virola, ayahuasca, and various types of psychoactive fungi.[139] Current U.S. Federal Law allows two of these to be used in a spiritual context. The Native American Church is permitted use of peyote; the Uniao do Vegetal (or UDV) is permitted use of ayahuasca.[140] Although not consistently granted (varying from state to state), the principal grounds for such concessions are constitutional,[141] with further grounds following from the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.

Notes

  1. ^ "In English, it is sometimes referred to as Magic Mint, or more properly by its direct translation from Latin, 'Diviner's Sage' or 'Seer's Sage.'" Boire, p. 13
  2. ^ The case of North Dakota resident Kenneth Rau is reported as likely being the first person charged for Salvia divinorum possession in the United States.[20][21] A Nebraska store owner was also charged for selling salvia, but not under the auspices of any specific law against Salvia divinorum. Christian Firoz was instead charged under a general Nebraskan statute where it is illegal to sell a product to induce an intoxicated condition. The jury in the Firoz case returned a verdict of not guilty.[22] The Rau case did not go to jury trail. Rau pleaded guilty to the charge of Class C felony possession of salvia, and also Class A misdemeanor possession of drug paraphernalia and Class B misdemeanor possession of marijuana. He received a deferred imposition of sentence. He will not go to prison, but will be on supervised probation for three years; the charges will be removed from his record if he successfully completes his time on supervision. The judge ordered Rau to complete a chemical dependency evaluation and any recommended treatment and pay $575 in court fees.[23] - See also the North Dakota detail under the main article on the Legal status of Salvia divinorum (and, re the Christian Firoz case, the Nebraska detail).
  3. ^ Reisfield states that "Hybridity is suggested" but that "Whether of hybrid origin or an inbred cultigen, questions regarding taxonomic affinities, fruit abortion, native distribution, and pharmacology are yet to be conclusively resolved." Valdés (1987), a botanist, wrote that "It is doubtful that the Salvia is a true cultigen", based partly on his belief that it is first "collected in the highlands and planted in more accessible places, where it becomes naturalized". The main cultigen proponent is Gordon Wasson, who is not a botanist.
  4. ^ Reisfield is unsure why Epling "used the invalid name (the synonym rather than the valid name S. concolor), nor why he considered this species close to S. divinorum".
  5. ^ In fact the video is one in a series of parodies featuring Erik J. Hoffstad, a production assistant in Los Angeles. In the film Hoffstad smokes salvia from a bong in a parked car (his friends reportedly making sure he did not have the real keys).[97]
  6. ^ The reporter noted that Sak had received more money from the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association than any one else in the House.[102] According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association was the highest contributor to his 2006 political campaign.[103]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 287.
  2. ^ Medana et al. 2005, p. 131.
  3. ^ a b Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 288.
  4. ^ a b c Ott 1995.
  5. ^ a b Reisfield 1993, Introduction.
  6. ^ a b Boire 2002.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Reisfield 1993, The Barrier to Fertility.
  8. ^ a b c Valdes 1987, p. 106.
  9. ^ a b Marushia 2002, p. 3.
  10. ^ Prisinzano 2006, p. 527.
  11. ^ a b Imanshahidi & Hosseinzadeh 2006, p. 430.
  12. ^ a b Baggott & Erowid 2004, p. 12.
  13. ^ a b c Mowry, Mosher & Briner 2003, p. 382.
  14. ^ Grundmann 2007.
  15. ^ a b c d Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983.
  16. ^ a b c Zhang et al. 2005, p. abstract.
  17. ^ Masis 2007-02-28 (US Media)
  18. ^ Prisinzano, Tidgewell & Harding 2005.
  19. ^ a b c DEA 2008.
  20. ^ DRCNet 2008-04-25 (US Media).
  21. ^ Michael 2008-08-03 (US Media).
  22. ^ DRCNet 2009-01-31 (US Media).
  23. ^ Michael 2009-04-22 (US Media).
  24. ^ Shulgin 2003.
  25. ^ Chalmers 2006-05-06 (US Media).
  26. ^ Marushia 2002, p. 6.
  27. ^ a b Marushia 2002, p. 2.
  28. ^ Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 290.
  29. ^ a b Marushia 2002, p. 11.
  30. ^ Wasson 1963.
  31. ^ Valdés 2001.
  32. ^ Dweck 1997, p.15.
  33. ^ Erowid (Cacahuaxochitl) 2007.
  34. ^ Mason 2009-01-30 (US Media).
  35. ^ Honeycutt 2009-02-09 (US Media).
  36. ^ a b c Clebsch & Barner 2003, p. 106.
  37. ^ Reisfield 1993, Previous Research.
  38. ^ Ott 1996
  39. ^ Reisflield 1987, p. 199.
  40. ^ Foley 1993, p. 56.
  41. ^ Erowid, Salvia Timeline.
  42. ^ Siebert 2006.
  43. ^ Salvia.net Botany.
  44. ^ Siebert, 'Luna' Clone.
  45. ^ http://www.gardenology.org/wiki/Salvia_divinorum
  46. ^ http://www.gardenology.org/wiki/Salvia_divinorum
  47. ^ Siebert (Cultivation advice).
  48. ^ Beifuss 1997.
  49. ^ http://members.cox.net/sageseeds/
  50. ^ a b c Prisinzano 2006, p. 528.
  51. ^ Siebert 2004.
  52. ^ Kunkel 2004.
  53. ^ Harding, Schmidt & Tidgewell 2006, p. 107.
  54. ^ http://totallysynthetic.com/blog/?p=692
  55. ^ a b Imanshahidi & Hosseinzadeh 2006, p. 431.
  56. ^ Roth et al. 2002, p. abstract.
  57. ^ Harding 2005.
  58. ^ Bigham et al. 2003.
  59. ^ Munro & Rizzacasa 2003.
  60. ^ .Capasso 2006.
  61. ^ .Capasso 2008.
  62. ^ SAMHSA 2006.
  63. ^ a b Siebert (Smoke advice).
  64. ^ a b c Sage Student - Sd User Guide.
  65. ^ Siebert (FAQ—Section IV).
  66. ^ Siebert 1994.
  67. ^ a b c Siebert (FAQ—Section VI).
  68. ^ Turner 1996.
  69. ^ a b Baggott & Erowid 2004, p. 14.
  70. ^ Mercury House Publishing Online.
  71. ^ Lizard 2001.
  72. ^ a b Siebert (Arts).
  73. ^ Pendell 1995.
  74. ^ Rothman et al. 2000, p. abstract
  75. ^ Carlezon, Béguin & DiNieri 2005.
  76. ^ a b Hanes 2001, p. 634–635.
  77. ^ Singh 2006
  78. ^ a b c Terry 2007-10-03 (US Media).
  79. ^ Schenk 2001, p. 629–34.
  80. ^ DEA 2002, title 21, section 812.
  81. ^ Roth 2007.
  82. ^ Schaper 2006-03-20 (US Media).
  83. ^ Schultes 1992.
  84. ^ a b c Cardall 2006-12-12 (US Media).
  85. ^ Shafer 2008-05-06 (US Media).
  86. ^ a b c Martell 2007-06-18 (US Media).
  87. ^ Devine 2007-02-19 (US Media).
  88. ^ Blake 2006-11-13 (US Media).
  89. ^ a b Sanchick 2007-02-14 (US Media).
  90. ^ a b Dujanovic 2006-11-27 (US Media).
  91. ^ Quinones 2006-11-30 (US Media).
  92. ^ a b c Baskin 2007-07-11 (US Media).
  93. ^ a b c Chancellor 2008-03-14 (US Media).
  94. ^ Shulgin 1997.
  95. ^ Sontaya 2007-05-10 (US Media).
  96. ^ Allday 2007-06-27 (US Media).
  97. ^ a b Sack 2008-09-08 (US Media).
  98. ^ Sege 2008-07-22 (US Media).
  99. ^ Berry 2008-01-07 (US Media).
  100. ^ White 2008-01-08 (US Media).
  101. ^ Sak 2008.
  102. ^ McNamara 2008-04-30 (US Media).
  103. ^ a b c d e f MiSP 2006.
  104. ^ YouTube Guidelines 2008.
  105. ^ Sarno 2008-09-12 (US Media).
  106. ^ a b c d Anderson 2006-04-13 (US Media).
  107. ^ Haskell 2007-01-23 (US media).
  108. ^ Wallace 2007-11-26 (US Media)
  109. ^ Hoyle 2008-03-12 (US Media).
  110. ^ Tompkins 2007-07-13 (US Media).
  111. ^ Peterson 2006.
  112. ^ Chalmers 2007-08-03 (US Media).
  113. ^ Coolman 2007.
  114. ^ Michael 2009-01-28 (US Media).
  115. ^ a b c d Siebert (Legal status).
  116. ^ a b c Erowid (Legal status).
  117. ^ a b Worksop 2005-10-14 (UK Media).
  118. ^ Mann 2005.
  119. ^ Mann 2008.
  120. ^ Doward 2009-04-26 (UK Media).
  121. ^ Siebert 2002.
  122. ^ Baca 2002.
  123. ^ DEA 2003.
  124. ^ CCLE 2002.
  125. ^ a b Dujanovic 2006-11-28 (US Media).
  126. ^ Sanchick 2007-02-15 (US Media).
  127. ^ Clark 2007-03-05 (US Media).
  128. ^ Reboletti 2007 (Mar).
  129. ^ NBC10 2006-04-11 (US Media).
  130. ^ Smith 2007-09-25 (US Media).
  131. ^ KXMBTV 2007-01-31 (US Media).
  132. ^ Teel 2006.
  133. ^ Follow The Money, Industry Influence.
  134. ^ Reboletti 2007 (Jan), full text - p.7.
  135. ^ Nutt et al. 2007.
  136. ^ Lopez 2005, Table 2.
  137. ^ NIAAA 2001.
  138. ^ Blosser (Mazatec Lessons).
  139. ^ see peyote, iboga, virola, ayahuasca, etc.
  140. ^ see Native American Church and Uniao do Vegetal.
  141. ^ Madison 1789.

References

News references

UK

US

Follow-up story: "Indiana's Legal High: Regulating Substance Faces Long Road". 2007-11-27. http://www.theindychannel.com/news/14703208/detail.html. Retrieved 2007-11-29. 
Follow-up story: Lawmaker Responds to Investigative Report on Dangerous Herb, 2006-11-28.
Cardall, Duane. KSL Editorial, 2006-12-01.
viewer feedback—asx video (save & use media player)

Further research

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