scalping

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The practice of removing the scalp, ‘the haire skinne of the head’, from a slain enemy as a trophy, originated in ancient headhunting. The English word ‘scalp’ is derived from the Danish skalp (shell, husk), which, like the Old Norse skalpr (sheathe), belongs to the Indo-European verb stem skel- (to cut), and is thus related to skelo (Danish: skaal, Swedish: skål), the Germanic term for ‘drinking vessel’. According to Paulus Diaconus, skelo was originally applied only to vessels made from skulls, out of which the blood of vanquished foes was drunk both in Germanic and classical antiquity. Corresponingly, in Middle English scalp still meant ‘skull’, and only after the seventeenth century did the word take on the more common and specific meaning of the ‘skin of the head’. From that point on the word ‘scalping’ was used to describe the ‘peeling’ of the skin from the head of dead and, on occasion, still living enemies, and above all to its practice among several Indian tribes of North and South America, where it served to satisfy a thirst for glory and honour or simply as a means of revenge.

Although American native peoples were all too often accused of being the sole practitioners of scalping, in reality they did nothing others had not done before. Herodotus found the practice among the Pontic Scythians, and, according to the Maccabees, the ancient Persians tore away the scalp of one of their prisoners. Orosius reports that Romans scalped during the battle on the Raudine plain. It is highly probable that Germanic tribes behaved similarly, for we know that they ascribed magical powers to a shock of human hair, regarding it as the symbol of the free man. In Germanic law, if a court demanded the guilty party's head to be shaved it was considered an especially grievous sentence — in very serious cases the court could decree that the hair be ripped out with the skin. The Vandals used this form of scalping (decalvatio) as a method of torture; several provisions of the Sachsenspiegel, the oldest and most influential legal code of medieval Germany, are tantamount to the same thing. The shaved, bald heads of prisoners in Nazi concentration camps, as well as those of bochesses (German-lovers) after the defeat of the Wehrmacht in the zones occupied by Germany during World War II, are horrible reminders of that dreadful tradition.

Outside Europe, tribes in western Siberia practised scalping into recent times, as did the Naga peoples in the Indian state of Assam and various groups in the interior of Celebes. In 1845, the British traveller John Duncan watched the Apadomey regiment of the legendary black Amazonian army pass in parade before the king of Dahomey — bearing 700 scalps as trophies. Duncan's awe-struck description of the sight has been adapted many times, most recently in Richard Fleischer's Conan the Destroyer, where Grace Jones plays a warrior woman armed with a knife and draped, as it appears, with scalps. In the Caribbean, scalp hunts were organized by runaway slaves, especially the ‘bushmen’ of Surinam, who, following African custom, used scalps for ceremonial purposes inside their fortified asylums (palenques).

Among the native peoples of both Americas, scalping was originally not widespread and was practised only rarely and on a small scale. It was only after firearms and steel knives were introduced that the taking of scalps as booty became more frequent. Even then, scalping did not become extensive until the eighteenth century, when warring European groups adopted the custom of posting rewards for scalps in order to terrorize the foe of the moment. By that time, however, it was certainly no longer merely ‘reds’ scalping ‘whites’ and other ‘reds’, but also ‘whites’ scalping ‘reds’ and other ‘whites’. In the Kansas — Nebraska War of the 1850s, ‘damn'd abolitionists’ were scalped, as were some political opponents during the 1856 presidential election campaign between Buchanan and Fremont.

— Peter Martin

Bibliography

• Friederici, G. (1906). Skalpieren und ähnliche Kriegsgebräuche in Amerika. Braunschweig

The removal of particles larger than a specified size by screening.

Scalping is the removal of the skin and hair from atop the victim's skull, usually accomplished with a knife. While long believed to be a traditional Native American practice, modern apologists have argued that Europeans introduced the custom of taking scalps from slain or captive enemies in America. Nevertheless, references to Indians' scalping made by the earliest of European explorers, the elaborate methods and rituals often surrounding Indian scalping, and archaeological evidence in the form of telltale cut marks on pre-Columbian skulls indicate that scalping was a native practice prior to 1492. Various scalping traditions can be traced from Alaska to Mexico, and sporadically even into South America.

Following their entry into the New World, Europeans both adopted and encouraged scalping. During King Philip's War (1675–1676) in New England, the colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts offered bounties for the scalps of their Wampanoag enemies. Colonial authorities would pay ten shillings to Indians and thirty shillings to non-Indians for every enemy scalp. The French in Canada appear to have been the first to encourage the scalping of whites. In 1688 they offered ten beaver pelts for every scalp—Indian or Puritan—brought to them. While Indians had practiced scalping for centuries, these bounties probably did encourage the spread of scalping to tribes who had not previously done so, or who had scalped only infrequently in the past.

Scalping and scalp bounties continued through the colonial wars of the eighteenth century, with a noticeable increase in colonists' willingness to scalp Indian enemies. During the American Revolution, British Colonel Henry Hamilton at Detroit drew the derisive nickname "hair buyer" because he encouraged his Indian allies to attack the rebels and to exchange enemy scalps for bounties. But he was not alone in the practice. South Carolina's legislature offered seventy-five pounds for male scalps, and Pennsylvania's offered one thousand dollars for every Indian scalp. Kentuckians invading Shawnee villages in southern Ohio dug up graves to take scalps for trophies. Scalp bounties and scalp-taking also took place during the War of 1812 and in the American invasion of the West. Reports of scalping cease with the close of the Plains Wars at the end of the nineteenth century.

For the Indians of the North American Plains and their neighbors to the east, those of the Great Lakes, the Eastern Woodlands, and the Gulf Coast, war was a major social tradition. Combatants in all these areas took scalps in the course of warfare, although how a scalp was taken and handled varied according to local customs. Plains Indians generally took scalps from the center of the victim's head, pulling hair and a silver dollar-sized piece of skin away after a circular incision. There are numerous instances of survival after such treatment, a reflection of the point that Plains Indian warfare was less directed at killing the enemy and more toward touching him, that is, counting "coup." Engaging an enemy hand-to-hand and then touching him while he was down but still alive confirmed a warrior's courage. Only the Teton Dakota regarded killing and scalping as the coup of highest worth. The Chiricahua Apache saw the taking of an enemy's scalp as disgusting, and declined the practice.

Bibliography

Axtell, James, and William C. Sturtevant. "The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping?" William and Mary Quarterly 37 (1980): 451–472.

Grinnell, George Bird. "Coup and Scalp Among the Plains Indians." American Anthropologist 12 (1910): 296–310.

Stockel, H. Henrietta. "Scalping." Military History of the West 27 (1997): 83–86.

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1. A shellfish - See Fish (Scampi).
   
2. A dish made with a scampi sauce.
   
3. A sauce made of garlic, butter, usually wine, and herbs.
   

For other uses, see Scalping (disambiguation).

Hannah Duston scalping her native captors

Scalping is the act of removing another person's scalp or a portion of their scalp, either from a dead body or from a living person. The initial purpose of scalping was to provide a trophy of battle or portable proof of a combatant's prowess in war. Eventually, the act became motivated primarily for financial reasons; people received payment per scalp they acquired.

Scalping is often associated with frontier warfare in North America, and was practiced by Native Americans, colonists, and frontiersmen across centuries of violent conflict. Some Mexican (e.g., Sonora and Chihuahua) and American territories (e.g., Arizona) paid bounties for enemy Native American scalps.^[1] Contrary to popular belief, scalping was far from universal amongst Native Americans.^[2]

Contents 1 Scythia 2 Levant 3 Western and Eastern Europe 4 North America 4.1 Colonial Wars 4.2 American Revolution 5 In motion pictures, popular literature, and entertainment 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

Scythia

Scalping was practiced by the ancient Scythians of Eurasia.^[3] Herodotus, the Greek historian, wrote of the Scythians in 440 BC:

The Scythian soldier scrapes the scalp clean of flesh and softening it by rubbing between their hands, uses it thenceforth as a napkin. The Scyth is proud of these scalps and hangs them from his bridle rein; the greater the number of such napkins that a man can show, the more highly is he esteemed among them. Many make themselves cloaks by sewing a quantity of these scalps together.^[4]

Levant

The second book of the Maccabees (ca. 67-37 BC) describes the practice of scalping of living captives in Palestine.^[5]

Western and Eastern Europe

Scalps were taken in wars between the Visigoths, the Franks, and the Anglo-Saxons in the 9th century, according to the writings of Abbé Emmanuel H. D. Domenech. His sources included the decalvare of the ancient Germans, the capillos et cutem detrahere of the code of the Visigoths, and the Annals of Flodoard.^{[citation needed]}

In the 4th century, Ammianus Marcellinus described scalping by the Alans, a nomadic people of Iranian origin and the ancestors of the Ossetians (scalping being still remembered in Ossetian folklore).^[6]

According to Friedrich von Adelung, scalping was also practiced by several Slavic tribes in the 10th century.^[7]

North America

1890 photograph of Robert McGee, scalped as a child by Sioux Chief Little Turtle, in 1864.

1864 photo of Californian Seth Kinman displaying an Indian scalp (front left). He collected "Indian artifacts" including scalps.

Buffalo hunter Ralph Morrison was killed and scalped December 7, 1868, near Fort Dodge, Kansas, by Cheyennes. The photo is by William S. Soule. Officer is Lt Reade of the 3rd Infantry {left} and John O. Austin Chief of scouts at right.^[8]

Certain tribes of Native Americans practiced scalping, in some instances up until the end of the 19th century. According to Haines and Steckel (2000), "Probably the most dramatic skeletal example of prehistoric violence in North America comes from the Crow Creek site in central South Dakota. Archaeological excavations revealed about 486 skeletons within a fortification ditch on the periphery of the habitation area. The site represents the Initial Coalescent period and dates to about 1325 A.D. P. Willey's analysis revealed that 90% of the individuals had cut marks characteristic of scalping."^[9]

In the 1710s and 1720s, New France engaged in frontier warfare with the Natchez people and the Meskwaki people.

While scalping was used in the Pequot War, scalping did not appear in the laws of the American colonies until the mid-1760s. ^[10]

Colonial Wars

There were six colonial wars with New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fighting New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy over a seventy-five year period, starting with King William's War in 1689 (See the French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). Frontier warfare (i.e., scalping) against families was the approach to warfare used by all parties during these wars.^[11]

Massachusetts created a scalp bounty during King William's War in July 1689.^[12] During Queen Anne's War, by 1703, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was offering $60 for each native scalp.^[13] During Father Rale's War (1722–1725), on August 8, 1722, Massachusetts put a bounty on native families.^[14] Ranger John Lovewell is known to have conducted scalp-hunting expeditions, the most famous being the Battle of Pequawket in New Hampshire.

During King George's War, in response to repeated massacres of British families by the French and their native allies, Governor of Massachusetts William Shirley reluctantly issued a bounty for the scalps of Indian men, women, and children (1744).^[15]

During Father Le Loutre's War and the French and Indian War in Nova Scotia and Acadia, French colonists offered payments to Indians for British scalps.^[16] In 1749, British Governor Edward Cornwallis offered payment to New England Rangers for Indian scalps. Both the Mi'kmaq people and the British killed combatants and non-combatants (i.e., women, children and infants). During the French and Indian War, Governor of Nova Scotia Charles Lawrence also offered a reward for male Mi'kmaq scalps in 1756.^[17]

Indian Warrior with Scalp, 1789, by Barlow.

During the French and Indian War, in June 12, 1755, Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips of Massachusetts Bay colony was offering a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of females or of children under 12 years old.^[18] In 1756, Pennsylvania Governor Morris, in his Declaration of War against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 Pieces of Eight, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years," and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."^[19]

American Revolution

In the American Revolutionary War, Henry Hamilton, the British lieutenant-governor of Province of Quebec (1763-1791), was known by American Patriots as the "hair-buyer general" because they believed he encouraged and paid his Native American allies to scalp American settlers. When Hamilton was captured in the war by the colonists, he was treated as a war criminal instead of a prisoner of war because of this. However, American historians have conceded that there was no positive proof that he had ever offered rewards for scalps.^[20] It is now assumed that during the American Revolution, no British officer paid for scalps.^[21]

Native American Big Mouth Spring with decorated scalp lock on right shoulder. 1910 photograph by Edward S. Curtis

Supposedly, General Custer (who was known for his hair) was not scalped after the Battle of the Little Bighorn because he was deemed filthy in the eyes of the Sioux – to lay hands on him would sully the hands of the warrior.^[22]

Some scalping incidents even occurred during the American Civil War; for example, Confederate guerrillas led by Bloody Bill Anderson were well known for decorating their saddles with the scalps of Union soldiers they had killed.^[23] Archie Clement had the reputation of being Anderson’s “chief scalper”.

In motion pictures, popular literature, and entertainment

The act of scalping featured prominently in some Westerns such as the 1966 Burt Reynolds spaghetti western Navajo Joe which opens with an Indian massacre in which a white profiteer scalps an Indian woman, and the 1990 film Dances with Wolves which shows Pawnee Indians with scalps hanging from their bow or lance and Timmons, the teamster is scalped after being ambushed by the Pawnee. The Cormac McCarthy novel Blood Meridian is about a group of mercenaries making a living off Indian scalps and references the activity extensively, and in Karl May's novels the character Sam Hawkins had been scalped by Indian warriors and survives. The first work in the Lonesome Dove series, Dead Man's Walk features a scalping, as does James Carlos Blake's In the Rogue Blood. Likewise, George Macdonald Fraser's antihero, Harry Flashman, observes scalping and is himself partially scalped in Flashman and the Redskins. Titus Bass, the protagonist of Terry Johnston’s nine historical novels about the Rocky Mountain fur trade, survives being scalped. Even the children's novel Peter and Wendy by J.M. Barrie features a description of a "Redskin" scalper: "In the van, on all fours, is Great Big Little Panther, a brave of so many scalps that in his present position they somewhat impede his progress." Henry Frapp (Brian Keith) is scalped offscreen in the 1980 film The Mountain Men and survives the experience.

Stories that are not strictly Westerns but feature Native American characters or themes also deal with the practice. For example, the 1992 film The Last of the Mohicans based on the novel by James Fenimore Cooper shows many acts of scalping throughout the film, notably in the battle-scenes between the Native Americans and European troops. In the 1994 film Legends of the Fall Tristan Ludlow (Brad Pitt) scalps many German soldiers in the First World War resulting in his discharge from army service.

The horror genre uses scalping as a violent and sensationalistic act, the most notorious depiction being a sequence in the 1981 slasher film Maniac, featuring shockingly realistic makeup effects by Tom Savini. Later examples include the 2002 film Deathwatch where Pte. Thomas Quinn (Andy Serkis) wears a vest made from German scalps and is seen scalping an executed prisoner in one scene; the 2009 World War II film Inglourious Basterds where American irregulars collect scalps of killed Wehrmacht servicemen, with orders from their commanding officer (also Brad Pitt) to collect 100 scalps each; the 2007 film Saw IV where a woman named Brenda is put into a scalping chair torture device; and the video game Gun where the player is able to scalp dying enemies after purchasing a special scalping knife. The 2010 film Piranha 3D depicts a woman being extensively scalped (complete with her facial skin also being removed) when her hair is caught in a motorboat propeller; this scene won the "Most Memorable Mutilation" trophy at the 2011 Scream Awards.

See also

• Pitchcapping
• Shrunken head

Notes

1. ^ William Brandon and Keith Rosenberg, Native American specialists, The American Heritage Book of Indians (1961).
2. ^ World of the American Indian, by Jules B. Billard, National Geographic Society; First Printing edition (1974), Washington, D.C.
3. ^ Scott, George Ryley (2003). History of Torture Throughout the Ages. Kessinger Publishing. p. 211. ISBN 0-7661-4063-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tj7vbMmuvhYC&pg=PA211&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
4. ^ Alfred D. Godley, trans., Heroditus, History, Vol. 4, Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 1963.
5. ^ Donald J. Ortner, Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains, p. 166. Academic Press, 2003.
6. ^ Henry Field, Contributions to the anthropology of the Caucasus, Volume 48, p. 45. The Peabody Museum, 1953.
7. ^ Friedrich Otto Hertz, Amelia Sarah Levetus, W. Entz. Race and civilization. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., ltd., 1928.
8. ^ [1]
9. ^ Hall Steckel, Richard; R. Haines, Michael (2000). A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ISBN 0-521-49666-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&pg=PA68&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
10. ^ Grenier. 2005. p.39
11. ^ John Grenier. The first way of war: American war making on the frontier, 1607-1814 Cambridge University Press. 2005.
12. ^ John Grenier. First Way of War. p. 39
13. ^ http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm
14. ^ William Williamson. The History of the State of Maine.Vol 2. pp. 117-118
15. ^ A particular history of the five years French and Indian War in New England ... By Samuel Gardner Drake, William Shirley. p. 134
16. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.2008
17. ^ British Scalp Proclamation: 1756
18. ^ http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm and http://books.google.ca/books?id=OKfBId96DTIC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=Massachusetts+Bay+Colony+scalping&source=bl&ots=UyM9nAC-yx&sig=Kz7faq4KVIl4aY8vcps9ajItP2E&hl=en&ei=FL6HTqvTHqje0QGd87zcDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false , p. 88
19. ^ http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm
20. ^ Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: Henry Hamilton
21. ^ Kelsey pg. 303
22. ^ Northern Cheyenne break vow of silence,Independent Record, Helena
23. ^ Zwonitzer, Mark. People & Events—William "Bloody Bill" Anderson. PBS

References

• Kelsey, Isabel, Joseph Brant 1743–1807 Man of Two Worlds, 1984, ISBN 0-8156-0182-4
• Axtell, James. "Scalps and Scalping" from Encyclopedia of North American Indians
• Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: Henry Hamilton
• Grenier, John. The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 2008.
• Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier. Cambridge University Press. 2005

External links

• British Scalp Proclamation of 1756

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