Dictionary:
Shin·to (shĭn'tō)  |
A religion native to Japan, characterized by veneration of nature spirits and ancestors and by a lack of formal dogma.
[Japanese shintō : shin, gods (from Middle Chinese) + tō, dō, art, way; see aikido.]
Shinto Shin'to adj.| World of the Body: Shinto |
Dictionaries, both English and Japanese, commonly present ‘Shintoism’ or ‘Shinto’ (the more common term), as a system of ancestor and nature worship native to Japan. Shinto as a systematic, unified religion is as much a creation of modern Japan's Meiji state (1867-1912) as it is something that has existed throughout Japan's history. The basic meaning of the word ‘Shinto’ until the nineteenth century was local religion in general, and although Shinto usually referred to Japanese religion, it did not necessarily have to (e.g. the 1605 anthropological work Ryūkyū shintō-ki, or Account of Local Religion [Shinto] in Ryukyu, the Kingdom of Ryukyu then being a separate country from Japan). Viewed historically, we may identify three related yet distinct varieties of ‘Shinto’: (i) local religious practices and beliefs that originated before Buddhist influence; (ii) certain of these local practices and beliefs that Buddhism later subsumed, systematized, and modified, from the ninth to the eighteenth centuries; and (iii) Japan's ‘national religion’, with varying degrees of connection to the state, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Shinto never articulated an overall theory of the body, but the first variety of Shinto closely linked the sexual body with agriculture and the forces of nature.
Important artifacts from the middle Jōmon period (c.3500-2400 bce) and later, include phallic stones (sekibō), ranging in height from 2 m to 50 cm, and clay female figures with prominent breasts and hips (dogū), sometimes appearing pregnant, most approximately 30 cm in height. Although there is disagreement over the details, most scholars agree that ancient inhabitants of Japan connected these objects with magico-religious rites to promote bountiful harvests. Prehistoric residents of the Japanese islands probably connected the mystery of human reproduction with agricultural productivity, and the female figures symbolized both mother and earth as locus of mysterious power.
The notion of mysterious power gradually developed into the Shinto concept of kami, often translated as ‘deity’. The most basic meaning of the term is: that which is above other things like it — in other words, that which is distinctive. An unusually large tree, an outcropping of rock, a waterfall, certain animals, and even certain people are examples of things that have qualified as kami owing to some distinctive attribute the local people regarded as significant. Though part of a world of spirits, kami were not transcendent. They linked the visible world with the realms beyond direct sensory apprehension.
According to ancient mythology, the Japanese islands themselves were created by the sexual activities of anthropomorphic kami. For example, in Chronicles of Japan, two creation deities, lzanagi and Izanami, stand on the Floating Bridge of Heaven and say ‘Is there no country beneath?’ They then thrust down a heavenly jewelled spear, repeatedly, until they found the vast ocean beneath. Brine dripped from the point of the spear, coagulated, and became an island on which the two deities dwelt. They continued the creation process after the female deity explained that her body has a place that is the source of femininity and the male deity explained that his had a place that is the source of masculinity. They united these two places to form numerous other islands. In these myths the deities' sexuality was the creative power of nature.
Shinto typically associated disease and death with pollution and, accordingly, developed purification rites. It celebrated health, prosperity, and life, which it associated with the creative forces of nature. A common metaphor for nature's generative forces was the sexual body. Phallic stones, poles, and etchings along roadsides, for example, functioned to protect against nature's polluting forces. Ancient agricultural deities often existed as a male and female pair, sometimes depicted embracing each other. Wooden or stone representations of male or female genitalia, or a pair of such objects, became the kami-body in shrines throughout many parts of the Japanese islands (the kami-body is an object in which the spirit of a deity was thought to reside). Even today, representations of sexual organs occasionally serve as the kami in Japanese shrines and can be seen in public festivals celebrating the shrine's kami.
During the late nineteenth century, Japan's Meiji state sought to revamp Shinto to enhance the process of nation-building (i.e. of Japanese thinking of themselves as Japanese). As part of a general policy of policing morality, the leaders of modern Japan sought to suppress the overtly sexual symbolism of Shinto. Instead of the sexual body, modern Japan's state Shinto stressed kokutai, the ‘national body’ (often translated ‘national polity’) — a vague but potent concept of Japanese essence embodied in an allegedly unbroken lineage of emperors descending from the solar deity (Amaterasu). What began in ancient Japan as worship of the sexual body, ended in modern Japan (until 1946) as worship of the national body. Neither ‘body’ plays a major role in today's Shinto, but vestiges of each remain.
— G. Smits
See also creation myths.
| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Shinto |
For more information on Shinto, visit Britannica.com.
| Philosophy Dictionary: Shinto |
(Chinese shin tao, the way of the Gods) Traditional Japanese religion, an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism. Shinto can be traced back to around 500 bc but has no formal bible. Like Confucianism it emphasizes tradition and the family as the means for preserving tradition. The main celebrations relate to birth and marriage. It also emphasizes love of nature, physical cleanliness and ‘Matsuri’: the worship and honour given to the ancestral spirits and gods or ‘Kami’.
| Buddhism Dictionary: Shintō |
The indigenous religion of Japan. This is not so much an organized, unified religion as a cultural complex of religious myths and rituals carried out originally by clan and village groups and centring on tutelary deities called kami. These kami can be thought of as deities with names and life-stories attached to them, as in the case of the sun goddess Amaterasu; as personifications of forces of nature; or as the spirit animating awe-inspiring natural features such as waterfalls, stones, mountains, or large and ancient trees. Later in Japanese recorded history, with the successful claim of the Yamato family to rule all of Japan, state-sponsored temples and cults arose to honour and petition kami that transcended familial and local concerns, and imperial/national rituals added a new layer to Shintō practice. The Yamato family was in the process of consolidating their power in the 6th century when Buddhism arrived in Japan. Thereafter, various proposals were made and decisions taken on the question of how to relate the foreign religion to the native one, or how Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were to relate to kami. The shinbutsu shūgō movement, beginning in the late 7th century, proposed that the kami were to be the guardians of the new religion, or, alternatively, that the kami, while powerful enough to answer certain petitions, were themselves caught in the cycle of suffering and in need of Buddhist teaching. Finally, the honji-suijaku theory identified the kami with the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, claiming them as particularized, local manifestations of their original and universal natures. Such theories paved the way for the combination of Shintō and Buddhism at the institutional level with the founding of jingūji, or ‘shrine-temples’ where both Shintō priests and Buddhist monks worked side by side, although with the Shintō functionaries generally in the subordinate position.
Buddhism also stimulated more philosophical reflection among Shintō priestly families. For example, Yoshida Shintō, founded in the 15th century by Urabe Kanetomo (1435-1511), proposed a cosmology according to which a great Shintō deity created the universe and all that was in it, including Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Later, in the Edo period (1603-1867), Shintō thinkers made use of new Neo-Confucian (see confucianism) ideas from China to bolster a philosophical system sophisticated enough to compete with Buddhism. Shintō also provided the rallying point for restoration of the imperial family to political power, since Amaterasu was both the kami of the nation and the tutelary god of the Yamato clan, and since the ruling warlords (Japanese, shōgun) had made much use of Buddhist temples in their administration. Within this situation, it became easy to associate Shintō with the emperor and Buddhism with the warlords. When the Meiji emperor came to power in 1868 (see Meiji Restoration), he declared a policy of sundering the connection between Shintō and Buddhism (this split is called shinbutsu bunri in Japanese). This put an end to syncretism between Shintō and Buddhism, although many of the new religions that have appeared in Japan since the early 1800s, while ostensibly basing themselves on either Buddhism or Shintō, have in fact mixed elements of the two in a new synthesis.
| Asian Mythology: Shinto |
Shinto, meaning the “kami way” (See kami), is a term applied to the ancient pre-Buddhist (See Buddhism) religion of Japan to differentiate it from Butsudo, the “Buddha way” (See Japanese Buddhism). Shinto is a polytheistic system that expresses in some profound way the Japanese world view. There are Shinto prayers and Shinto rituals, but the doctrine is minimal. Some might call Shinto a way of life rather than a religion per se. The mythic basis of Shinto is the belief in kami. Originally the word kami was used to describe any mysterious or sacred reality, anything that seemed to possess numinosity. However, everything is potentially kami and, thus, worthy of reverence. Because of the concept of kami, Shinto at once affects the way tea is served, the way a package is wrapped, the way a war is fought, and the way an emperor is crowned. Gradually the kami concept took on concrete forms—deities who lived in natural objects or phenomena, ancestor divinities, and abstract concept divinities. Shinto shrines and rituals were at first local and agricultural in nature, but eventually they became associated with larger entities, including clans and the nation itself. The gods of Shinto are directly related to the imperial family and thus to the Japanese state (See Shinto Mythology). It could be argued that all Japanese are practitioners of Shinto, even if they happen to be Buddhist or Christian. By the eighth century, Shinto and Buddhism achieved a kind of marriage, with Shinto and Buddhist deities becoming merged and/or deities of one religion revered in the temples of the other (See Japanese Buddhas).
| Columbia Encyclopedia: Shinto |
History and Development
Shinto cannot be traced to its beginnings, because until the 5th cent. (when Chinese writing was introduced into Japan) the myths and rituals were transmitted orally. The written record of the ancient beliefs and customs first appeared in the Kojiki [records of ancient matters], prepared under imperial order and completed in A.D. 712. From those first Japanese accounts of the religion of times then already far past, it can be seen that a worship of the forces and forms of nature had grown into a certain stage of polytheism in which spiritual conceptions had only a small place. Nor was there any clear realization of a personal character in the beings held to be divine, and there were practically no images of the deities.
There was no one deity supreme over all, but some gods were raised to higher ranks, and the one who held the most exalted position was the sun goddess, known as the Ruler of Heaven. The emperors of Japan are said to be descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu-o-mi-kami, in unbroken line beginning with the first, Jimmu, who ascended his throne in 660 B.C. Thus the emperor was looked upon as divine, even while living; by divine right he was the chief priest, and as such he presided over ceremonies of foremost importance. Aside from this his religious responsibilities were delegated to others.
A Shinto shrine, unaffected by other religious influences, is a simple unpainted wooden building, having some object within it that is believed to be the dwelling place of the kami. After Buddhism entered Japan in the 6th cent. A.D., it had some influence on Shinto. In many shrines Buddhist priests serve, and worship under their direction is more elaborate than pure Shinto.
Beginning in the 17th cent. a vigorous effort was made to revive the old ways and ideas. After the Meiji restoration in 1868, the ancient department of Shinto rites was reestablished, giving Shinto much of its structure and identity as a religion. In 1882 all Shinto organizations were divided into two groups, state shrines (supervised and partially supported by the government) and sectarian churches. The ancient mythology was used to glorify the emperor and the state, and state Shinto became a powerful instrument in the hands of the militarists, who used it to glorify their policy of aggression.
Modern Shinto
Japan's defeat in World War II brought about the disestablishment of state Shinto. In 1946 in a New Year's rescript, Emperor Hirohito destroyed its chief foundation by disavowing his divinity; in the same year Gen. Douglas MacArthur forbade the use of public funds to support Shinto. In present-day Shinto there is no dogmatic system and no formulated code of morals. Shinto practices can be found abroad wherever large Japanese communities exist, as in the United States and South America. Some of the newer sects stress world peace and brotherhood as part of their philosophy.
Bibliography
See W. G. Aston, Shinto (1905, repr. 1968); D. C. Holtom, Modern Japan and Shinto Nationalism (rev. ed. 1947, repr. 1963); A. Akiyama, Shinto and Its Architecture (2d ed. 1956); S. Ono, Shinto: The Kami Way (1962); F. H. Ross, Shinto (1965); J. Herbert, Shinto (1966); S. D. Picken, Shinto: Japan's Spiritual Roots (1980).
| Wikipedia: Shinto |
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| Kami · Polytheism · Animism · | |
| Matsuri · Ritual purity · Mythology | |
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| Amaterasu · Ame-no-Uzume · Inari · | |
| Izanagi · Izanami · Susanoo · | |
| Kotoamatsukami · Tsukuyomi | |
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| Kojiki · Fudoki · Rikkokushi · | |
| Shoku Nihongi · Jinnō Shōtōki | |
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| Japan · Japanese Buddhism · | |
| List of Shinto shrines | |
| Glossary of Shinto | |
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Shinto Portal |
Shinto (神道 Shintō) is the name ascribed to the non-Buddhist religious practices of Japan. The word Shinto ("Way of the Gods") was adopted from the written Chinese (神道),[1] combining two kanji: "shin" (神), meaning gods or spirits (originally from the Chinese word shen); and "tō" (道), or "do" meaning a philosophical path or study (originally from the Chinese word tao). The yamato-kotoba (ja:大和言葉) terms Kami no michi and kannagara are similar in meaning and usage.
Shinto is today thought of as the indigenous religion of Japan, primarily in contradistinction to Buddhism. It incorporates religious practices derived from many local and regional prehistoric traditions, but did not emerge as a formal religious institution until the arrival of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, beginning in the 6th century. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century as a response to the influx of highly developed religions from the mainland. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified "Shinto religion" but rather a set of practices associated with harvests and other annual events, along with a uniquely Japanese cosmogony and mythology, combining the traditions of the ascendant tribes of early Japan, mainly the Yamato and Izumo cultures. In time, Buddhism adapted in Japan as in China to the native beliefs and practices, including, for example, kami from the Shinto pantheon among the bodhisattvas (bosatsu). (See article on "syncretism".)
Shinto today is characterized by polytheism and animism, a strong focus on ritual purity, and involves honoring and celebrating the existence of kami (神), whether anthropomorphic deities or something more akin to nature spirits, even an "ambiance", or a personal characteristic, such as "virility". Shinto is an "orthopractic" religion where ritual and practice are of the highest importance in comprehending and taming a world saturated by kami. Modern Shinto does not have a central dogmatic authority, despite the efforts of ruling institutions from the earliest times down through the 20th century. Rather, Shinto today is an inclusive association of local, regional, and national shrines of various rank and significance, expressing their beliefs through similar language and practice, all adopting similar "innovations" in dress, architecture, and ritual, ("innovations" dating from around the time of the Tang dynasty).,[2]
Shinto today is supposed to include about 119 million adherents in Japan,[3] although a person who practices any manner of Shinto rituals may be so counted. It is generally accepted that the vast majority of Japanese practice Shinto, while most would also consider themselves Buddhists. For example, it is typical in Japan to register or celebrate a birth at a Shinto shrine, while funeral arrangements are generally dictated by Buddhist tradition.
Within Shinto, there are a variety of sects outside Shrine Shinto and the officially defunct State Shinto. Sect Shinto, like Tenrikyo and Konkokyo, have a unique dogma or leader, with many exhibiting the influence of Messianic Christianity in the 19th and 20th century, particularly the "New Religions" (Shinshūkyō) that proliferated in the post-war era. In general, though, the Emperor of Japan is regarded as the highest authority of the Shinto religion, despite the Showa Emperor's "Declaration of Humanity" (ningen-sengen) at the end of the Second World War.[4]
Shinto has shrines in many other countries today including the United States, Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the Netherlands among others and is considered to be be expanding from an "ethnic religion" to a global religion.
Contents |
The creation story of Japan is written in the Kojiki in 712; it is a depiction of the events leading up to and including the creation of the Japanese Islands. There are many translations of the story with variations of complexity.
The Japanese islands are to be considered a paradise as they were directly created by the gods for the Japanese people, and were ordained by the higher spirits to be created into the Japanese empire. Shinto is the fundamental connection between the power and beauty of nature (the land) and the Japanese people. It is the manifestation of a path to understanding the institution of divine power.
Shinto teaches that everything contains a kami (神 "spiritual essence", commonly translated as god or spirit). Shinto's spirits are collectively called yaoyorozu no kami (八百万の神), an expression literally meaning "eight million kami", but interpreted as meaning "myriad", although it can be translated as "many Kami".
Kami come in many of forms where some are local and can be regarded as the spiritual being/spirit of a particular place while others appears to have been defined as eternal and described with more "god" like powers of creation. Kami may also be ancestors or famous persons of Japanese history elevated to a higher status and available for placation at a shrine. There is a bit of trouble with the definition of Kami being a "god" in the monotheistic definition of the word, but it is generally accepted to describe any supernatural force that is above the actions of man, and is very inclusive of all religious "god", spirit figures, and mythological creatures in Shinto belief. Frequently they are described taking human forms, inhabiting inanimate objects, becoming animals, and manifesting as "ghosts". All mythological creatures of the Japanese cultural tradition, of the Buddhistic traditional beliefs, Christian God, Hindu gods, Islamic Allah, various angels and demons of all faiths among others are considered Kami for the purpose of Shinto faith.
The history of Shinto may be as long as there are archeological records of people living in Japan. However the written history is back to 712 in the Kojiki.
There is an internal system of historical Shinto development that structures the relationships between Shinto and other religious practices over its long history; the inside and outside Kami. The inside or ujigami (uji meaning clan) Kami roles that supports cohesion and continuation of established roles and patterns; and the hitogami or outside Kami, bringing innovation, new beliefs, new messages, and some instability. The tension that this system creates helped to solidify with the support of a long lasting Imperial line of divine support a very deep and complex system of Shinto all throughout Japan. There is an indigenous balance between outside influences of Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, Western Christian and secular beliefs that although has had conflicts at times, today appears very natural and inexclusive.
Japanese culture begins to develop in no small part due to influences from mainland trade and immigration from north east China. During this time in the pre-writing historical period, objects from the mainland start appearing in large amounts, specifically mirrors, swords, and jewels. All three of these have a direct connection to the imperial divine status as they are the symbols of imperial divinity and are Shinto honorary objects. Also the rice culture begins to blossom throughout Japan and this leads to the settlement of society, and seasonal reliance of crops. Both of these changes are highly influential on the Japanese people's relationship to the natural world, and likely development of a more complex system of religion. This is also the period that is referenced as the beginning of the divine imperial family. The Yayoi culture was a clan based culture that lived in compounds with a defined leader who was the chief and head priest. They were responsible for the relationship with their "gods" Kami and if one clan conquered another, their "god" would be assimilated. The earliest records of Japanese culture were written by Chinese traders who described this land as "Wu". This time period led to the creation of the Yamato culture and development of formal Shinto practices.
The development of niiname or the (now) Shinto harvest festival is attributed to this period as offerings for good harvests of similar format (typically rice) become common.
The great bells and drums, Kofun burial mounds, and the founding of the imperial family are important to this period. This is the period of the development of the feudal state, and the Yamato and Izumo cultures. Both of these dominant cultures have a large and central shrine which still exists today. Ise Shrine in the South West and Izumo Taisha in the North East. This time period is defined by the increase of central power in Naniwa, now Osaka, of the feudal lord system. Also there was an increasing influence of Korean trade and culture which profoundly changed the practices of government structure, social structure, burial practices, and warfare. The Japanese also held land and sway in Korea as well. The Paekche kingdom in Korea has political alliances with Yamato, and in the 5th century imported the Chinese writing system to record Japanese names and events for trade and political records. In 513 they sent a Confucian scholar to the court to assist in the teachings of Confucian thought. In 552 or 538 a Buddha image was given to the Yamato leader which profoundly changed the course of Japanese religious history, especially in relation to the undeveloped native religious conglomeration that was Shinto. In the latter 6th century, there was a breakdown of the alliances between Japan and Korea but the influence led to the codification of Shinto as the native religion in opposition to the extreme outside influences of the mainland. Up to this time Shinto had been largely a clan ('uji') based religious practice, exclusive to each clan.
The introductions of writing in the 5th century from China and Buddhism in the 6th century via Korea had a profound impact on the development of a unified system of Shinto beliefs. In the early Nara period the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki were written by compiling existing myths and legends into a unified account of Japanese mythology. These accounts were written with two purposes in mind: the introduction of Taoist (Daoist), Confucian, and Buddhist themes into Japanese religion; and garnering support for the legitimacy of the Imperial house, based on its lineage from the sun goddess, Amaterasu. Much of modern Japan was under only fragmentary control by the Imperial family, and rival ethnic groups. The mythological anthologies, along with other poetry anthologies like the Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves (Man'yōshū) and others, were intended to impress others with the worthiness of the Imperial family and their divine mandate to rule.
In particular the Asuka rulers of 552-645 saw disputes between the more major families of the clan Shinto families. There were disputes about who would ascend to power and support the imperial family between the Soga and Mononobe/Nakatomi Shinto families. The Soga family eventually prevailed and supported the famous Empress Suiko and Prince Shotoku, who helped impress Buddhist faith into Japan. However it was not until the Hakuho ruling period of 645-710 was Shinto installed at the imperial faith along with the Fujiwara Clan and reforms that followed.
Beginning with Emperor Temmu (672-686), continuing through Empress Jito (686-697) and Emperor Mommu (697-707) Court Shinto rites are strengthened and made parallel to Buddhist beliefs in court life. Prior to this time clan Shinto had dominated and a codification of "Imperial Shinto" did not exist as such. The Nakatomi family are made the chief court Shinto chaplains and chief priests at Ise Daijingu which held until 1892. Also the practice of sending imperial princesses to the Ise shrine begins.[2] This marks the rise of Ise Diajingu as the main imperial shrine historically. Due to increasing influence from Buddhism and mainland Asian thought, codification of the "Japanese" way of religion and laws begins in earnest. This culminates in three major outcomes: Taiho Code (701 but started earlier), The Kojiki (712),and the The Nihon Shoki (720).
The Taiho Code (also called Ritsuryō (律令?) was an attempt to create a bulwark to dynamic external influences and stabilize the society through imperial power. It was a liturgy of rules and codifications, primarily focused on regulation of religion, government structure, land codes, criminal and civil law. All priests, monks, and nuns were required to be registered, as were temples. The Shinto rites of the imperial line were codified, especially seasonal cycles, lunar calendar rituals, harvest festivals, and purification rites. The creation of the imperial Jingi-kan or Shinto Shrine office was completed.
This period hosted many changes to the country, government, and religion. The capital is moved again to Heijō-kyō, or Nara, in AD 710 by Empress Gemmei due to the death of the Emperor. This practice was necessary due to the Shinto belief in the impurity of death and the need to avoid this pollution. However, this practice of moving the capital due to "death impurity" is then abolished by the Taihō Code and rise in Buddhist influence.[2] The establishment of the imperial city in partnership with Taihō Code is important to Shinto as the office of the Shinto rites becomes more powerful in assimilating local clan shrines into the imperial fold. New shrines are built and assimilated each time the city is moved. All of the grand shrines are regulated under Taihō and are required to account for incomes, priests, and practices due to their national contributions.
During this time Buddhism becomes structurally established within Japan by Emperor Shōmu (reign 724-749), and several large building projects are undertaken. The Emperor lays out plans for the Buddha Dainichi (Great Sun Buddha), at Tōdai-ji assisted by the Priest Gyogi (or Gyoki) Bosatsu. The priest Gyogi went to Ise Daijingu Shrine for blessings to build the Buddha Dainichi. They identified the statue of Viarocana with Amatarasu (the sun goddess) as the manifestation of the supreme expression of universality.[2]
The priest Gyogi is known for his belief in assimilation of Shinto Kami and Buddhas. Shinto kami are commonly being seen by Buddhist clergy as guardians of manifestation, guardians, or pupils of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.[2] The priest Gyogi conferred boddhisattva precepts on the Emperor in 749 effectively making the Imperial line the head of state and divine to Shinto while beholden to Buddhism. [5]
To distinguish between these different focuses of emphasis within Shinto, many feel it is important to separate Shinto into different types of Shinto expression.
All these main types of Shinto and some subtypes have given birth to many and diverse schools and sects since medieval times to the present days. A list of the most relevant can be found at the article Shinto sects and schools.
Shinto teaches that certain deeds create a kind of ritual impurity that one should want cleansed for one's own peace of mind and good fortune, not because impurity is wrong in and of itself. Wrong deeds are called "impurity" (穢れ kegare), opposed to "purity" (清め kiyome). Normal days are called "day" (ke), and festive days are called "sunny" or simply "good" (hare).[7] Killing living beings should be done with reverence for taking a life to continue one's own and should be kept to a minimum.
Modern Japanese continue to place great emphasis on the importance of ritual phrases and greetings (挨拶 aisatsu). Before eating, many (though not all) Japanese say, "I will humbly receive" (戴きます itadakimasu), to show proper thankfulness to the preparer of the meal in particular and more generally to all those living things that lost their lives to make the meal. Failure to show proper respect can be seen as a lack of concern for others, looked down on because it is believed to create problems for all. Those who fail to take into account the feelings of other people and kami will only bring ruin on themselves.
The worst expression of such an attitude is the taking of another's life for personal advancement or enjoyment. Those killed without being shown gratitude for their sacrifice will hold a grudge (怨み urami) and become a powerful and evil kami that seeks revenge (aragami). This same emphasis on the need for cooperation and collaboration can be seen throughout Japanese culture today. Additionally, if anyone is injured on the grounds of a shrine, the area affected must be ritually purified.
Purification rites are a vital part of Shinto. These may serve to placate any restive kami, for instance when their shrine had to be relocated. Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life. For example, a ceremony was held in 1969 to hallow the Apollo 11 mission to the moon,[8] new buildings made in Japan are frequently blessed by a Shinto priest kannushi (神主) during the groundbreaking ceremony, and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process. Moreover, every Japanese car factory built outside Japan has had a groundbreaking ceremony performed by a Shinto priest, with occasionally an annual visitation by the priest to re-purify.
A more personal purification rite is the purification by water. This may involve standing beneath a waterfall or performing ritual ablutions in a river-mouth or in the sea (misogi). This practice comes from Shinto history, when the kami Izanagi-no-Mikoto first performed misogi after returning from the land of Yomi, where he was made impure by Izanami-no-Mikoto after her death. These two forms of purification are often referred to as harae (祓).
A third form of purification is avoidance, that is, the taboo placed on certain persons or acts. To illustrate, women were not allowed to climb Mount Fuji until 1868, in the era of the Meiji Restoration. Although this aspect has decreased in recent years, religious Japanese will not use an inauspicious word like "cut" at a wedding, nor will they attend a wedding if they have recently been bereaved.
Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a Shintoist. Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local Shinto shrine adds the child's name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her a "family child" (氏子 ujiko). After death an ujiko becomes a "family spirit", or "family kami" (氏神 ujigami). One may choose to have one's name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places. Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list. However, this is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of being welcomed by the local kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death. Those children who die before addition to the list are called "water children" (水子 mizuko), and are believed to cause troubles and plagues. Mizuko are often worshipped in a Shinto shrine dedicated to stilling their anger and sadness, called mizuko kuyō (水子供養).
Because Shinto has co-existed with Buddhism for well over a millennium, it is very difficult to untangle Shinto and Buddhist beliefs about the world. Though Buddhism and Shinto have very different perspectives on the world, most Japanese do not see any challenge in reconciling these two very different religions, and practice both. Thus it is common for people to practice Shinto in life yet have a Buddhist funeral. Their different perspectives on the afterlife are seen as complementing each other, and frequently the ritual practice of one will have an origin in the other.
Any person may visit a shrine and need not be "Shinto" to do this. Typically there are a few basic steps to visiting a shrine.
There are a wide variation in how this basic visitation may go, and depending on the time of year and holidays it may also have other rituals attached to visitations.
The practice of purification by ritual immersion in cold water while reciting prayers typically done daily in the morning by regular practitioners, and when possible by lay practitioners. There is a defined set of prayers and physical activities that precede and occur during the ritual. Will usually be performed at a shrine, in a natural setting, but can be done anywhere there is clean running water. Rivers and waterfalls that are very cold are preferred places for this practice.
The ritual prayers of offerings to Kami, usually done daily at a shrine and is an involved ceremony. Shinsen (food offerings) and Tamagushi (Sakaki Tree Branches) may be offered along with Sake. On special occasions the inner shrine doors may be opened and special offerings made on holidays and other events.
Ema are small wooden plaques that wishes or desires are written upon and left at a place in the shrine grounds so that one may get a wish or desire fulfilled. They have a picture on them and frequently associated with the larger Shrines.
Ofuda are a talisman issued by a Shinto shrine, made of paper, wood, or metal, inscribed with the name of a kami and used for protection in the home. The are typically placed in the home at a kamidana. They are also renewed annually.
Omamori are personal protection amulets, issued by a shrine and sold to individuals with a specific intent in mind. Frequently for warding off bad luck and for better health, more recently there are also ones for good driving, good business, and school success. Their history lies with Buddhist practices of selling amulets.
All of these items bring religious practice to daily life in modern Japan, are frequently seen in popular media today (manga and anime), and help to support the shinto shrine through annual income.
Kagura is the ancient Shinto ritual dance of shamanic origin. The word "kagura" is thought to be a contracted form of kami no kura or "seat of the kami" or the "site where the kami is received."[9] There is a mythological tale of how kagura dance came into existence. The sun goddess Amaterasu became very upset at her brother so she hid in a cave. All of the other gods and goddesses were concerned and wanted her to come outside. Ame-no-uzeme began to dance and create a noisy commotion in order to entice Amaterasu to come out. The kami (gods) tricked Amaterasu by telling her there was a better sun goddess in the heavens. Amaterasu came out and light returned to the universe.
Music plays a very important role in the kagura performance. Everything from the setup of the instruments to the most subtle sounds and the arrangement of the music is crucial to encouraging the kami to come down and dance. The songs are used as magical devices to summon the gods and as prayers for blessings. Rhythm patterns of five and seven are common, possibly relating to the Shinto belief of the twelve generations of heavenly and earthly deities. There is also vocal accompaniment called kami uta in which the drummer sings sacred songs to the gods. Often the vocal accompaniment is overshadowed by the drumming and instruments, reinforcing that the vocal aspect of the music is more for incantation rather than aesthetics.[10]
In both ancient Japanese collections, the Nihongi and Kojiki, Ame-no-uzeme’s dance is described as asobi, which in old Japanese language means a ceremony that is designed to appease the spirits of the departed, and which was conducted at funeral ceremonies. Therefore, kagura is a rite of tama shizume, of pacifying the spirits of the departed. In the Heian period (8th-12th centuries) this was one of the important rites at the Imperial Court and had found its fixed place in the tama shizume festival in the eleventh month. At this festival people sing as accompaniment to the dance: “Depart! Depart! Be cleansed and go! Be purified and leave!”[11] This rite of purification is also known as chinkon. It was used for securing and strengthening the soul of a dying person. It was closely related to the ritual of tama furi (shaking the spirit), to call back the departed soul of the dead or to energize a weakened spirit. Spirit pacification and rejuvenation were usually achieved by songs and dances, also called asobi. The ritual of chinkon continued to be performed on the emperors of Japan, thought to be descendents of Amaterasu. It is possible that this ritual is connected with the ritual to revive the sun goddess during the low point of the winter solstice.[12]
There is a division between the kagura that is performed at the Imperial palace and the shrines related to it, and the kagura that is performed in the countryside. Folk kagura, or kagura from the countryside is divided according to region. The following descriptions relate to sato kagura, kagura that is from the countryside. The main types are: miko kagura, Ise kagura, Izumo kagura, and shishi kagura.
Miko kagura is the oldest type of kagura and is danced by women in Shinto shrines and during folk festivals. The ancient miko were shamanesses, but are now considered priestesses in the service of the Shinto Shrines. Miko kagura originally was a shamanic trance dance, but later, it became an art and was interpreted as a prayer dance. It is performed in many of the larger Shinto shrines and is characterized by slow, elegant, circular movements, by emphasis on the four directions and by the central use of torimono (objects dancers carry in their hands), especially the fan and bells.[13]
Ise kagura is a collective name for rituals that are based upon the yudate (boiling water rites of Shugendō origin) ritual. It includes miko dances as well as dancing of the torimono type. The kami are believed to be present in the pot of boiling water, so the dancers dip their torimono in the water and sprinkle it in the four directions and on the observers for purification and blessing.[14]
Izumo kagura is centered in the Sada shrine of Izumo, Shimane prefecture. It has two types: torimono ma, unmasked dances that include held objects, and shinno (sacred No), dramatic masked dances based on myths. Izumo kagura appears to be the most popular type of kagura.[15]
Shishi kagura also known as the Shugen-No tradition, uses the dance of a shishi (lion or mountain animal) mask as the image and presence of the deity. It includes the Ise daikagura group and the yamabushi kagura and bangaku groups of the Tohoku area (Northeastern Japan). Ise daikagura employs a large red Chinese type of lion head which can move its ears. The lion head of the yamabushi kagura schools is black and can click its teeth. Unlike other kagura types in which the kami appear only temporarily, during the shishi kagura the kami is constantly present in the shishi head mask. During the Edo period, the lion dances became showy and acrobatic losing its touch with spirituality. However, the yamabushi kagura tradition has retained its ritualistic and religious nature.[16]
Originally, the practice of kagura involved authentic possession by the kami invoked. In modern day Japan it appears to be difficult to find authentic ritual possession, called kamigakari, in kagura dance. However, it is common to see choreographed possession in the dances. Actual possession is not taking place but elements of possession such as losing control and high jumps are applied in the dance.
There is no core sacred text in Shinto, as the Bible is in Christianity or Qur'an is in Islam. Instead there are books of mythology and history which provide stories and background to many of the most well-known kami.
The principal worship of kami is done at public shrines (jinja), although home worship at small private shrines (kamidana) (sometimes only a high shelf with a few ritual objects) is also common. It is possible to worship objects or people while they are still living.
While a few of the public shrines are elaborate structures, most are small buildings in the characteristic Japanese architectural style. Shrines are commonly fronted by a distinctive Japanese gate (torii) made of two uprights and two crossbars. These gates are there as a part of the barrier to separate our living world and the world the kami live in. There are often statues of guardian lions may further protect the kami from evil intrusions, as do ropes with pendants hanging down.
In temple compounds, there is a public hall of worship, and behind it is an offering hall where priests conduct rites. Even further is the sacred sanctuary, which is entered only by the high priests. In the sacred sanctuary, the spirit of the kami is invited to dwell within a special natural object or a mirror which reflects light of brightness and purity.
There are well over 100,000 shrines in operation today, each with its retinue of priests. Shinto priests often wear a ceremonial robe called a jo-e. Kami are invoked at such important ceremonies as weddings and entry into university. The kami are commonly petitioned for earthly benefits: a child, a promotion, a happier life. While one may wish for ill fortune on others, this is believed to be possible only if the target has committed wrongs first or if one is willing to offer one's life. Though Shinto is popular for these occasions, when it comes to funerals most Japanese turn to Buddhist ceremonies, since the emphasis in Shinto is on this life and not the next. Almost all festivals in Japan are hosted by local Shinto shrines, and these festivals are open to all those who wish to attend. While these could be said to be religious events, Japanese do not regard these events as religious since everyone can attend, regardless of personal beliefs.
Of the many and diverse Shinto shrines in existence, some are more well known:
With the introduction of Buddhism and its rapid adoption by the court in the 6th century, it was necessary to explain the apparent differences between native Japanese beliefs and Buddhist teachings. One Buddhist explanation saw the kami as supernatural beings still caught in the cycle of birth and rebirth (reincarnation). The kami are born, live, die, and are reborn like all other beings in the karmic cycle. However, the kami played a special role in protecting Buddhism and allowing its teachings of compassion to flourish.
This explanation was later challenged by Kūkai (空海, 774–835), who saw the kami as different embodiments of the Buddhas themselves (honji suijaku theory). For example, he famously linked Amaterasu (the sun goddess and ancestor of the Imperial family) with Dainichi Nyorai, a central manifestation of the Buddhists, whose name means literally "Great Sun Buddha." In his view, the kami were just Buddhas by another name.
Buddhism and Shinto coexisted and were amalgamated in the shinbutsu shūgō and Kūkai's syncretic view held wide sway up until the end of the Edo period. At that time, there was a renewed interest in "Japanese studies" (kokugaku), perhaps as a result of the closed country policy.
In the 18th century, various Japanese scholars, in particular Motoori Norinaga (本居 宣長, 1730–1801), tried to tease apart the "real" Shinto from various foreign influences. The attempt was largely unsuccessful, since as early as the Nihon Shoki parts of the mythology were explicitly borrowed from Chinese doctrines. For example, the co-creator deities Izanami and Izanagi are explicitly compared to the Chinese concepts of yin and yang. However, the attempt did set the stage for the arrival of state Shinto, following the Meiji Restoration (c.1868), when Shinto and Buddhism were separated (shinbutsu bunri).
Following the Meiji Restoration, Shinto was made the state religion of the Empire of Japan, and in 1868 its combination with Buddhism was outlawed, in an attempt to purify Shinto by abolishing many Buddhist and Confucian ideals. During this period, numerous scholars of kokugaku believed that State Shinto could be the unifying agent of the country around the Emperor while the process of modernization was undertaken with all possible speed. The psychological shock of the Western "Black Ships" and the subsequent collapse of the shogunate convinced many that the nation needed to unify in order to resist being colonized by outside forces.
In 1871, a Ministry of Divinities was formed and Shinto shrines were divided into twelve levels with the Ise Shrine (dedicated to Amaterasu, and thus symbolic of the legitimacy of the Imperial family) at the peak and small sanctuaries of humble towns at the base. The following year, the ministry was replaced with a new Ministry of Religion, charged with leading instruction in "shushin" (moral courses). This was a major reversal from the Edo period, in which families were registered with Buddhist temples, rather than Shinto shrines. Priests were officially nominated and organized by the state, and they instructed the youth in a form of Shinto theology based on the official dogma of the divinity of Japan's national origins and its Emperor.
As time went on, Shinto was increasingly used in the advertising of nationalist popular sentiments. In 1890, the Imperial Rescript on Education was issued, and students were required to ritually recite its oath to "offer yourselves courageously to the State" as well as to protect the Imperial family. The practice of Emperor worship was further spread by distributing imperial portraits for esoteric veneration. All of these practices were used to fortify national solidarity through patriotic observance at shrines. This use of Shinto gave Japanese patriotism a special tint of mysticism and cultural introversion, which became more pronounced as time went on.
Such processes continued to deepen throughout the early Shōwa period, when State Shinto became a main force of militarism, finally coming to an abrupt end in August 1945 when Japan lost the war in the Pacific. On 1 January 1946, Emperor Shōwa issued the Ningen-sengen, in which he quoted the Five Charter Oath of Emperor Meiji and declared that he was not an akitsumikami.
As the era of State Shinto came to a close with the end of World War II, most Japanese came to believe that the hubris of Empire had led to their downfall. In the post-war period, numerous "New Religions" cropped up, many of them ostensibly based on Shinto, but on the whole, Japanese religiosity may have decreased. However, the concept of religion in Japan is a complex one. A survey conducted in the mid 1970s indicated that of those participants who claimed not to believe in religion, one-third had a Buddhist or Shinto altar in their home, and about one quarter carried an omamori (an amulet to gain protection by kami) on their person. Following the war, Shinto has, for the most part, persisted with less importance placed on mythology or the divine mandate of the Imperial family. Instead, shrines tend to focus on helping ordinary people gain better fortunes for themselves through maintaining good relations with their ancestors and other kami. Shinto has largely reverted to its pre-imperial family state. Post-war, the number of Japanese citizens identifying their religious beliefs as Shinto has declined a great deal, yet the general practice of Shinto rituals has not decreased accordingly, and many practices have persisted as general cultural beliefs (such as ancestor worship, which is still very popular), and community festivals (matsuri) — focusing more on religious practices. The explanation generally given for this anomaly is that, following the demise of State Shinto, modern Shinto has reverted to its more traditional position as a traditional religion which is culturally ingrained, rather than enforced. In any case, Shinto and its values continue to be an important component of the Japanese cultural mindset.
Shinto has also spread abroad to a limited extent, and a few non-Japanese Shinto priests have been ordained. A relatively small number of people practice Shinto in America. There are, however, several Shinto shrines in Hawaii, which has a large number of people of Japanese descent. Outside the US, there are also Shinto shrines in Brazil, Canada and the Netherlands. Shrines were also established in Taiwan and Korea during the Japanese occupation of those areas, but following the war, they were either repurposed or destroyed.
Shinto has been called "the religion of Japan", and the customs and values of Shinto are inseparable from those of Japanese culture. Many famously Japanese practices have origins either directly or indirectly rooted in Shinto. For example, it is clear that the Shinto ideal of harmony with nature underlies such typically Japanese arts as flower-arranging (生け花ikebana), traditional Japanese architecture, and garden design. A more explicit link to Shinto is seen in sumo wrestling, where, even in the modern version of the sport, many Shinto-inspired ceremonies must be performed before a bout, such as purifying the wrestling arena by sprinkling it with salt. The Japanese emphasis on proper greetings and respectful phrasings can be seen as a continuation of the ancient Shinto belief in kotodama (words with a magical effect on the world). Many Japanese cultural customs, like using wooden chopsticks and removing shoes before entering a building, have their origin in Shinto beliefs and practices. A number of other Japanese religions have originated from or been influenced by Shinto. Also, much of Japanese pop culture, especially anime and manga, draws from Shinto for inspiration and stories (e.g. Spirited Away, Amatsuki, InuYasha, Higurashi no naku koro ni, Hell Girl, Kamichu!, and Kannagi: Crazy Shrine Maidens).
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| Translations: Shinto |
Nederlands (Dutch)
Japanse godsdienst
Français (French)
n. - Shintoïsme
Deutsch (German)
n. - Schintoismus (jap. Staatsreligion)
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (θρησκ.) σιντοϊσμός
Português (Portuguese)
n. - xintoísmo (rel.)
Español (Spanish)
n. - sintoísmo
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
日本之神道教
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 日本之神道教
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) ألشنتو " ديانه أليابان ألاهليه "
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - שינטו - דת של עבודת-האבות ורוחות-הטבע ביפן
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