n.
The art or business of designing and constructing ships.
shipbuilder ship'build'er n.
shipbuilding
Dictionary:
ship·build·ing (shĭp'bĭl'dĭng)  |
| 5min Related Video: shipbuilding |
| Sci-Tech Encyclopedia: Shipbuilding |
The construction of large vessels which travel over seas, lakes, or rivers. Many different approaches have been used in the construction of ships. Sometimes a ship must be custom-built to suit the particular requirements of a low-volume trade route with unique cargo characteristics. On the other hand, there are many instances where a significant number of similar ships are constructed, providing an opportunity to employ procedures which take advantage of repetitive processes.
The building of a ship can be divided into seven phases: design, construction planning, work prior to keel laying, ship erection, launching, final outfitting, and sea trials. See also Ship design.
The construction planning process establishes the construction techniques to be used and the schedules which all of the shipbuilding activities must follow. Construction planners generally start with an erection diagram on which the ship is shown broken down into erection zones and units. To facilitate the fabrication of steel, insofar as possible, the erection units are designed to be identical. The size (or weight) of the erection units selected is usually limited by the amount of crane capacity available. Once the construction planners have established the manner in which the ship is to be erected and the sequence of construction, the schedules for construction can be developed. Working backward from the time an erection unit is required in the dock, with allowances made for the many processes involved, a schedule of working plans and for procurement of purchased equipment is prepared.
Before the keel of a ship is laid (or when the first erection unit is placed in position) a great deal of work must have been accomplished for work to proceed efficiently. The working drawings prepared by ship designers completely define a ship, but often not in a manner that can be used by the construction trades people. Structural drawings prescribe the geometry of the steel plates used in construction, but they cannot be used, in the form prepared, to cut steel plates. Instead, the detailed structural drawings must be translated into cutting sketches, or numerical-control cutting tapes, which are used to fabricate steel. Several organizations have developed sophisticated computer programs which readily translate detailed structural drawings into machine-sensible tapes which can be used to drive cutting torches.
If all of the preceding work has been accomplished properly and on schedule, the erection of a ship can proceed rapidly; however, problem areas invariably arise. When erecting a ship one plate at a time, there are no serious fitting problems; but when 900-metric-ton erection units do not fit (or align) properly, there are serious problems which tend to offset some of the advantages for this practice.
A ship is launched as soon as the hull structure is sufficiently complete to withstand the strain. Ships may be launched endwise, sidewise, or by in-place flotation (for example, graving docks). The use of a graving dock requires a greater investment in facilities than either of the other two methods, but in some cases there may be an overall advantage due to the improved access to the ship and the simplified launch procedure. See also Drydocking.
The final outfitting of a ship is the construction phase during which checks are made to ensure that all of the previous work has been accomplished in a satisfactory manner; and last-minute details, such as deck coverings and the top coat of paint, are completed. It is considered good practice to subject as much of the ship as possible to an intensive series of tests while at the dock, where corrections and final adjustments are more easily made than when at sea. As a part of this test program, the main propulsion machinery is subjected to a dock trial, during which the ship is secured to the dock and the main propulsion machinery is operated up to the highest power level permissible.
When a comprehensive program of dockside tests have been completed, the only capabilities which have not been demonstrated are the operation of the steering gear during rated-power conditions and the operation of the main propulsion machinery at rated power; these capabilities must be demonstrated during trials at sea.
| US History Encyclopedia: Shipbuilding |
Shipbuilding in the United States began out of necessity, flourished as maritime trade expanded, declined when industrialization attracted its investors, then revived in World War II. Shipyards grew from barren eighteenth-century establishments with a few workers using hand tools even for "large" ships (200 tons) to huge twentieth-century organizations where thousands of employees use ever-changing technology to build aircraft carriers of 70,000 tons. Today the United States no longer leads the world in ship production, but it is still a major force in marine technology and engineering.
American shipbuilding began when Spanish sailors constructed replacements for ships wrecked on the North Carolina coast in the 1520s. Other Europeans launched small vessels for exploration and trade. In the 1640s the trading ventures of Massachusetts built vessels that established New England as a shipbuilding region. By the 1720s, however, New England shipyards faced competition from Pennsylvania and later from other colonies with growing merchant communities, such as Virginia, where slave labor boosted production.
The typical eighteenth-century urban shipyard was a small waterfront lot with few if any permanent structures. Rural yards, where land was cheap and theft less of a problem, often had covered sawpits, storage sheds, and wharfs. The labor force consisted of about half a dozen men, sawyers and shipbuilders as well as apprentices, servants, or slaves. Work was sporadic, and accidents, sometimes fatal, were common. Yet from such facilities came 40 percent of Great Britain's oceangoing tonnage on the eve of the Revolution. After Independence, shipbuilding stagnated until European wars in the 1790s enabled American shipyards to launch neutral vessels for their countrymen and merchant ships or privateers for French and British buyers.
During the Golden Age of American shipbuilding, from the mid-1790s through the mid-1850s, shipping reached its highest proportional levels, the navy expanded, and the clipper ship became a symbol of national pride. New technology entered the shipyard: the steam engine supplied supplementary power for some sailing vessels and the sole power for others; iron first reinforced and then replaced some wooden hulls. Many shipowners, attracted to the promised economy of size, ordered larger ships that required more labor, raw materials, and technology. Meanwhile, a transportation revolution compelled coastal vessels to connect with and compete with canal barges, inland river trade, and railroads. At this time, many New England merchants turned to manufacturing for higher and steadier returns.
By the late 1850s, the glory days had begun to fade. Maine and Massachusetts shipyards launched more tonnage than anyone else, but they did not construct steam-ships, while builders outside New England recognized that the future belonged to steam, not sail. The Civil War promoted naval construction, with both sides making remarkable innovations, but the war devastated commercial shipbuilding. Confederate raids on Union ships convinced some Yankee merchants to sell their ships to foreign owners. By 1865, American tonnage in foreign trade was half that of the late 1850s; at the end of the decade it was down to a third.
In 1880, Pennsylvania shipyards launched almost half of what the top ten states constructed. Iron, not steam, now represented the future; most shipyards could not afford the transition from wood to iron. Massachusetts build-ers held on by mass-producing small boats for offshore fishing schooners. Capital investments per yard many times greater than those of other states allowed Pennsylvania and Delaware yards to succeed. With yards in six of the ten states producing at a rate of less than two vessels per year, many establishments did not survive the introduction of iron.
Two successful shipyards of the period, William Cramp and Sons in Philadelphia and Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company of Virginia, embraced the new technology and benefited from the naval modernization program of the 1890s. Naval contracts proved vital to these builders' success, and the strength of the navy depended upon such shipyards.
When the United States entered World War I, it undertook an unprecedented shipbuilding program. After the war, builders watched maritime trade decline through the 1920s as the coastal trade gave way to trains and trucks and quotas restricted the once profitable immigrant trade. The Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company survived by performing non-maritime work such as building traffic lights. Relief did not come until the 1930s, when the U.S. government began ordering aircraft carriers to serve the dual purpose of strengthening the navy and providing jobs for the unemployed.
At the outbreak of World War II, Great Britain asked the United States to mass-produce an outdated English freighter design that had many deficiencies but possessed the all-important virtue of simplicity. Thanks to new welding techniques and modular construction, the "Liberty" ship became the most copied vessel in history. More than 2,700 were built—many completed in less than two months, some in a few weeks. This remarkable feat, accomplished by a hastily trained workforce using parts produced across the nation, was directed by Henry Kaiser, who had never before built a vessel. American shipyards also produced 800 Victory ships (a faster, more economical freighter), more than 300 tankers, and hundreds of other warships. American shipbuilding, a key factor in the Allied victory, increased 1,000 percent by war's end, making the United States the world's undisputed maritime power.
Following World War II, America abandoned maritime interests and focused on highways, factories, and planes. During the 1950s, Japanese, European, and Latin American shipbuilders outperformed American shipyards, while American Atlantic passenger liners succumbed to passenger jets. A nuclear-powered freighter, Savannah, proved both a commercial and public relations failure. While Americans pioneered development of the very economical container ship, it was quickly adopted by foreign competitors. Despite technical advances, shipbuilding continued to decline in the face of waning public and private support.
Today, Japan, Korea, and China build over 90 percent of the world's commercial tonnage; the U.S. share is only 0.2 percent. Since 1992, U.S. shipyards have averaged fewer than nine new commercial ships per year of 1,000 tons or more. Submarines and aircraft carriers are still under construction, although in reduced numbers; guided-missile destroyers and support vessels are on the rise. Modern maritime technology requires significant resources and expertise. Unlike the colonial years, when every seaport, however small, had a few shipyards, today the nation has just half a dozen major shipyards in total. The United States still enjoys an abundance of materials, skilled labor, and engineering ingenuity. It requires only large-scale public and private support to reignite interest in this once flourishing industry.
Bibliography
Chapelle, Howard I. The National Watercraft Collection. Washington, D.C.: United States National Museum, 1960. 2d ed., Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1976.
Goldenberg, Joseph A. Shipbuilding in Colonial America. Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1976.
Hutchins, John G. B. The American Maritime Industries and Public Policy, 1789–1914. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1941.
Pedraja, René de la. The Rise and Decline of U.S. Merchant Shipping in the Twentieth Century. New York: Macmillan, 1992.
| Wikipedia: Shipbuilding |
- See also Shipbuilding (song).
Shipbuilding is the construction of ships. It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history.
Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as the "naval sector". The construction of boats is a similar activity called boat building.
The dismantling of ships is called ship breaking.
Contents |
History
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter (See History of Papua New Guinea). The ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago.
4th millennium BCE
Evidence from ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians already knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports[1] that the oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in Abydos, were constructed of wooden planks which were "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University,[2] woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together,[1] and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.[1] Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy,[2] originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC,[2] and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating.[2] The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet long[2] and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh.[2] According to Professor O'Connor, the 5,000-year-old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha.[2]
3rd millennium BCE
Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a 43.6-meter vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example which may have fulfilled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.[1]
The world's first known tidal dock was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India. Other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[3] Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia.[4] Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India.[5] Native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos.[5] The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia.[6] Other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr.[6]
2nd millennium BCE
The ships of Ancient Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters (80 ft) in length, and had a single mast, sometimes consisting of two poles lashed together at the top making an "A" shape. They mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled.[7]
The ships of Phoenicia seems to have been of a similar design. The Greeks and probably others introduced the use of multiple banks of oars for additional speed, and the ships were of a light construction for speed and so they could be carried ashore.
1st millennium BCE
The naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC–481 BC) of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as "castle ships", which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts.
Early 1st millennium AD
The ancient Chinese also built ramming vessels as in the Greco-Roman tradition of the trireme, although oar-steered ships in China lost favor very early on since it was in 1st century China that the stern-mounted rudder was first developed. This was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century.
Middle Ages
The shipbuilding industry in Imperial China reached its height during the Song Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, and early Ming Dynasty. During the Song period (960–1279 AD), the establishment of China's first official standing navy in 1132 AD and the enormous increase in maritime trade abroad (from Heian Japan to Fatimid Egypt) allowed the shipbuilding industry in provinces like Fujian to thrive like never before. Some of the largest seaports in the world existed in China during this era, including Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Xiamen.
Viking longships developed from an alternate tradition of clinker-built hulls fastened with leather thongs. Sometime around the 12th century, northern European ships began to be built with a straight sternpost, enabling the mounting of a rudder, which was much more durable than a steering oar held over the side. Development in the Middle Ages favored "round ships", with a broad beam and heavily curved at both ends.
18th century
The introduction of cannons onto ships encouraged the development of tumblehome, the inward slant of the above-water hull, for additional stability, as well as techniques for strengthening the internal frame. These considerations, as well as the demand for ships capable of operating safely in the open ocean, led to the documentation of design and construction practice in what had previously been a secretive trade, and ultimately the field of naval architecture. Even so, construction techniques changed only very gradually; the ships of the Spanish Armada were internally very similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars over two centuries later.
19th century
Iron was gradually adopted in ship construction, initially in small areas needing greater strength, then throughout, although initially copying wooden construction. Isambard Kingdom Brunel's Great Britain of 1843 was the first radical new design, built entirely of iron, using stringers for strength, inner and outer hulls, and bulkheads to form multiple watertight compartments. Despite her success, many yards only went so far to use composite construction, with wooden timbers laid over an iron frame (the Cutty Sark is so constructed). Steel supplanted wrought iron when it became readily available in the latter half of the 19th century. Wood continued to be favored for the decks, and is still the rule as deckcovering for modern cruise ships.
Modern shipbuilding industry
The global shipbuilding industry is currently dominated by South Korea, which is by far the world's largest shipbuilding nation in terms of tonnage and number of vessels built, in spite of high labour cost, producing more ships than the entire rest of the world's output combined in 2008. This is largely due to its highly advanced shipbuilding technology and high productivity and efficiency of its shipyards. The world's largest shipyard in Ulsan operated by Hyundai Heavy Industries is so efficient that a new $80 million vessel slips into the water every four working days.[8] South Korea's "big three" shipbuilders, Hyundai Heavy Industries, Samsung Heavy Industries, and Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering, dominate global shipbuilding, with STX Shipbuilding, Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries, Hanjin Heavy Industries, and Sungdong Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering also ranking among the top ten shipbuilders in the world. In 2007, STX Shipbuilding acquired Aker Yards, the largest shipbuilding group in Europe, renaming the company to STX Europe in 2008, further strengthening South Korea's dominant position in the industry. China is a fast emerging shipbuilder and poised to overtake South Korea in the distant future but is mainly producing low-cost basic vessels at the moment, while Japan lost its leading position in the industry to South Korea in 2004,[8] and its market share has fallen sharply. The entire European countries' total market share has fallen to only a tenth of South Korea's and the outputs of the United States and other countries have become negligible.
| World shipbuilding production by countries (2008)[9] | ||||
| Rank | Country | 10,000 GT | % | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  South Korea |
1,240 | 50.6% | |
| 2 |  China |
840 | 34.4% | |
| 3 |  Europe |
140 | 5.7% | |
| 4 |  Japan |
90 | 3.7% | |
| 5 |  Rest of world |
140 | 5.6% | |
| - | Global output total | 2,450 | 100.0% | |
Design work, also called naval architecture, may be conducted using a ship model basin. Modern ships, since roughly 1940, have been produced almost exclusively of welded steel. Early welded steel ships used steels with inadequate fracture toughness, which resulted in some ships suffering catastrophic brittle fracture structural cracks (see problems of the Liberty ship). Since roughly 1950, specialized steels such as ABS Steels with good properties for ship construction have been used. Although it is commonly accepted that modern steel has eliminated brittle fracture in ships, some controversy still exists.[10] Brittle fracture of modern vessels continues to occur from time to time as the use of grade A and grade B steel of unknown toughness or fracture appearance transition temperature (FATT) in way of ships' side shells can be less than adequate for all ambient conditions.[11]
Modern shipbuilding makes considerable use of prefabricated sections; entire multi-deck segments of the hull or superstructure will be built elsewhere in the yard, transported to the building dock or slipway, then lifted into place. This is known as "block construction". The most modern shipyards pre-install equipment, pipes, electrical cables, and any other components within the blocks, to minimize the effort needed to assemble or install components deep within the hull once it is welded together.
Shipbuilding (which encompasses the shipyards, the marine equipment manufacturers and a large number of service and knowledge providers) is an important and strategic industry in a number of countries around the world. This importance stems from:
- The large number of trade persons required directly by the shipyard and also by the supporting industries such as steel mills and engine manufacturers; and
- A nation's need to manufacture and repair its own navy and vessels that support its primary industries.
Historically, the industry has suffered from the absence of global rules and a tendency towards (state-supported) over-investment due to the fact that shipyards offer a wide range of technologies, employ a significant number of workers, and generate foreign currency income (as the shipbuilding market is dollar-based and a global one). Shipbuilding is therefore an attractive industry for developing nations. Japan used shipbuilding in the 1950s and 1960s to rebuild its industrial structure; Korea made shipbuilding a strategic industry in the 1970s, and China is now in the process of repeating these models with large state-supported investments in this industry. As a result, the world shipbuilding market suffers from over-capacities, depressed prices (although the industry experienced a price increase in the period 2003–2005 due to strong demand for new ships which was in excess of actual cost increases), low profit margins, trade distortions and widespread subsidisation. All efforts to address the problems in the OECD have so far failed, with the 1994 international shipbuilding agreement never entering into force and the 2003–2005 round of negotiations being paused in September 2005 after no agreement was possible.
Where state subsidies have been removed and domestic policies do not provide support, in high-cost nations shipbuilding has usually gone into steady, if not rapid, decline. The British shipbuilding industry is one of many examples of this. From a position in the early 1970s where British yards could still build the largest types of sophisticated merchant ships, British shipbuilders today have been reduced to a handful specialising in defence contracts and repair work. In the U.S.A., the Jones Act (which places restrictions on the ships that can be used for moving domestic cargoes) has meant that merchant shipbuilding has continued, but such protection has failed to penalise shipbuilding inefficiencies. The consequence of this is contract prices that are far higher than those of any other nation building oceangoing ships.
See also
References
- ^ a b c d Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats", in Archaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America.
- ^ a b c d e f g Schuster, Angela M.H. "This Old Boat", Dec. 11, 2000. Archaeological Institute of America.
- ^ Possehl, Gregory. Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208
- ^ (eg Lal 1997: 182–188)
- ^ a b Tripathi, page 145
- ^ a b Hourani & Carswel, page 90
- ^ Robert E. Krebs, Carolyn A. Krebs (2003). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World. Greenwood PressScience. ISBN 0313313423. http://books.google.com/books?visbn=0313313423&id=0H0fjBeseVEC&pg=RA1-PA338&lpg=RA1-PA335&dq=Shipbuilding+history&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=d8ZeuiMqLZ2Uch9uEz8ss4a-GqY.
- ^ a b James Brooke (2005-01096). "Korea reigns in shipbuilding, for now". The New York Times. http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/01/05/business/ships.php. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
- ^ http://www.shipbuilding.or.kr/Report/Foreign/Foreign_Review/Foreign_Review.html
- ^ Drouin, P: "Brittle Fracture in ships - a lingering problem", page 229. Ships and Offshore Structures, Woodhead Publishing, 2006.
- ^ "Marine Investigation Report - Hull Fracture Bulk Carrier Lake Carling". Transportation Safety Board of Canada. 19 March 2002. http://www.tsb.gc.ca/en/reports/marine/2002/m02l0021/m02l0021.asp. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1967). History of Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 145. ISBN 8120800184.
- Hourani, George Fadlo; Carswel, John (1995). Arab Seafaring: In the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. Princeton University Press. pp. 90. ISBN 0691000328.
External links
- Trading Places — interactive history of Liverpool docks
- U.S. Shipbuilding — extensive information about the U.S. shipbuilding industry, including over 500 pages of U.S. shipyard construction records
- Shipyards United States — from GlobalSecurity.org
- Shipbuilding in Canada
- North Vancouver's Wartime Shipbuilding
- Shipbuilding News
- — Bataviawerf - the Historic Dutch East Indiaman Ship Yard Shipyard of the historic ships Batavia and Zeven Provincien in the Netherlands, since 1985 here have been great ships reconstructed using old construction methods.
- — Photos of the reconstruction of the Dutch East Indiaman Batavia Photo web site about the reconstruction of the 'Batavia' on the shipyard 'Batavia werf', a 16th century East Indiaman in the Netherlands. The site is constantly expanding with more historic images as in 2010 the shipyard celebrates its 25th year.
Video
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| Translations: Shipbuilding |
Dansk (Danish)
n. - skibsbyggeri
Nederlands (Dutch)
scheepsbouw
Français (French)
n. - construction navale
Deutsch (German)
n. - Schiffbau
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - ναυπηγική
Italiano (Italian)
ingegneria navale
Português (Portuguese)
n. - construção naval (f)
Русский (Russian)
кораблестроение
Español (Spanish)
n. - construcción naval
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - skeppsbyggeri, skeppsbyggnadskonst
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
造船
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 造船
한국어 (Korean)
n. - 조선술, 조선학, 조선업
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) بناء ألسفن
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - בניית אוניות
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