Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Email
Answers.com

Singing

 
Sci-Tech Dictionary: singing
 
Home > Library > Science > Sci-Tech Dictionary
(′siŋ·iŋ)

(control systems) An undesired, self-sustained oscillation in a system or component, at a frequency in or above the passband of the system or component; generally due to excessive positive feedback.

Search unanswered questions...

Enter a word or phrase...
All Community Q&A Reference topics

World of the Body: singing
 
Home > Library > Health > World of the Body

One definition of singing is ‘the utterance of words or sounds in tuneful succession’. Another is ‘to make musical sounds with the voice’. But the oldest musical ‘instrument’ is the human voice, so tautology leads us to musiche, the Greek word signifying the ‘art of the Muses’. Such chanting, together with that derived from Jewish traditions, evolved into Gregorian Chant, the sacred music of the Catholic Church, taught at the Schola Cantorum in Rome (founded in 590 by Gregory the Great).

Evolution of song

Save for early manuscripts and the sacred music still sung in synagogue and church, little can be known about the origins of song. In his brilliant survey of the evolution of speech in relation to language and human brain development (1996), the neuroscientist Deacon has observed that there are no extant ‘simple’ languages, only the present complex ones. These comprise different linguistic forms of grammar and syntax, moulded by cultural idiosyncracies, mutual interaction, and, above all, the specific influence that the language potential of early hominids had on brain evolution through natural selection. This surely would also have been the case for song's prehistory, which of course is also unknown. However, its nature may perhaps be surmised from the first linguistic communication between mother and infant which, if not in the womb itself through transmitted sound, is in the instinctive, inherently tuneful, and innately beautiful sound of the lullaby, whether sung or simply hummed. Musicologists recognize that Jewish and Greek sacred chant, plainsong, psalmody, and motet, both liturgical and secular, and their parallels in folksong, the lyric poetry of the troubadours' song and the madrigal, were all formative in the subsequent development of opera as an important aspect of the Renaissance. All of these, together with the later development of lieder, that distinctive German song style for the accompanied solo voice, which joins music, poetry, and its interpretation into a singular whole, have contributed to sung music — both classical and in the multitude of forms today.

As a musical instrument the singing voice has wide tonal compass and uniquely variable pitch, intensity, and stress. These and other prosodic features can fill even simple tones with emotional charge, as in psalmody. Here, in the solemn context of the mass and of the expectations of those hearing it, agony and love are portrayed as spiritual and reverential, appropriate to sacred music; intensely beautiful in its own way but, through religious observance, containing, not freeing, the spirit. When it encompasses all emotions, beautiful singing is epitomized by the ideals sought in the Italianate Bel Canto tradition, which came to perfection through the development of the operatic form. Its essence and secular appeal rested then, and to this day, on the emotional response of the listener to the production particularly of perfectly sung vowels in the arias for the solo voice, now in harmony with orchestra and chorus. Indeed, such emphasis on the quality of the open vowels, achieved by years of assiduous practice, was also at the heart of Gregorian chant, in which voices of different tessitura (the natural centre and tonal surround of each voice) would sing the tenor or falsetto parts. Then, the ‘tenor’ voice was the ‘lower’ voice, ‘holding’ the plainsong melody in long, drawn out notes, progressing smoothly from one note to the next in ‘legato’, sung either solo or by one half of the chorus. The upper (falsetto) voices responded in Amens or antiphons (short refrains). These, as well as other exclamatory additions, such as the Kyrie and Gloria in excelsis, allowed a more florid style of singing, but constrained nevertheless, so that emotion was subservient to the awe and solemnity appropriate to the Mass. But not so in opera, where legato in a favourite aria can still an audience and then climactically bring it to its feet over the full spectrum of human emotions, from love to hate, from grief to happiness. It can reveal evil or good intent as in Iago's scheming, or display the ambivalence of Carmen's love.

And so on to the German lieder, epitomized by Schubert's extraordinary genius in creating songs and song cycles. These were no longer constructed so that each repeating verse had the same musical form; instead, and based on the poetry of Goethe, Schiller, and their successors, sonority and melody now captured and enhanced the dramatic content of their lyric poetry, for each consonant, word, and line.

Beautiful singing, then, perhaps even more than speech itself, proclaims the emotional state of mind of the singer and hence, through the linguistic and emotional content of the words and the quality of the composed music, recapitulates a similar state in the minds of listeners, magically uniting composer, performer, and audience. The commonality of such a collective experience thus reveals the full extent of the communicative power of the highly evolved, culturally moulded gift (but from whom?) of human language, expressed in song as well as speech.

Sound generation

The terms ‘tenor’ and ‘falsetto’ refer to the early recognition that in the singing of notes of ascending or descending pitch within the great scale, individual voices show a ‘break’, requiring a distinct readjustment of voice production. The lower range was called voce di piena or voce di petto, meaning ‘full voice’ or ‘voice of the chest’; the upper one, voce finte, or ‘head voice’. These descriptions reveal the early recognition of the two principal voice ‘registers’ by relating them to the perceived placement or apparent source of the voice. In either case there is in fact only one sound source, that of the ‘phonating’ glottis (the aperture between the vocal cords). It is this sound which is modulated by the articulatory movements of the jaw, tongue, lips, and palate to add syllable, fricative, and other phonetically-distinct components to shape the natural sound or timbre of the individual voice. The willed intention to sing or speak, or for that matter the occurrence of an involuntary gasp or groan, depends on two sets of movements due to muscular activity; those of the thorax leading to expiratory airflow (see breathing), and those of the laryngeal cartilages in the voice box. In the latter case the vocal cords are brought together (adduction), interrupting the airflow. This process is not itself directly perceived, only the sense of vocal effort in generating the intensity of the intended sound, which through lifelong learning is inextricably bound to the sound heard ‘in one's head’. In common usage it is said that the vocal cords ‘vibrate’, but this is not actually correct in physical terms. Instead, the sound is generated secondarily to the sudden interruption of the expiratory airflow by cord adduction; the driving pressure in the airway below the cords (sub-glottal pressure) then forces the cords apart and a spring-like action closes them again. This cycle repeats in oscillatory fashion until the singing breath is exhausted or the ‘voicing’ ceased through voluntary action, by the moving apart (abduction) of the vocal cords. Such ‘valving’ of the airflow occurs at a frequency governed by the endowed mass and thickness of the vocal cords, and most importantly by the tension within them; this latter, a function of their length, is determined by the position of the different laryngeal cartilages, which is governed by activity in the extrinsic laryngeal muscles, supported by the intrisic ‘vocalis’ muscle. The actual sound is generated by the repeated compression and decompression of the gas particles immediately above the glottis, this process being acoustically magnified and harmonically enriched by the resonance and filtering properties of the vocal tract above. But control over the harmonic balance, and hence over the timbre of the voice, can only occur within the harmonic range determined by the overall frequency content of sound emission from the cords themselves.

These scientific facts only complement that which those versed in the Gregorian and Bel Canto traditions already knew, and which is still emphasized: that the aesthetic goal of perfectly sung vowels can only be met, with few exceptions, by years of diligent practice. The trained singer learns to control these properties, not through proprioception, as with the learning of limb motor skills, but through the acoustic goal of the quality of the sounds produced. Interestingly — save perhaps for the low frequency (6-8 Hz) intensity modulation of tones that occurs in vibrato — the frequency of sung notes is not directly represented in the frequency of the neural commands to the laryngeal muscles; rather, the frequency of action potentials in the motor nerves is simply that which is necessary to generate the muscle tensions for the intended note. Thus a larynx removed from a cadaver will generate rich, pure tones if the vocal cords are manually adducted in the presence of a supplied flow of air: a macabre scientific fact about the production of human sound in stark contrast to aesthetic considerations!

Musical prosody

Simulation however could never match the human skills used in singing, the way the physical attributes of intensity, pitch, and harmonic content are used serially to create stress and intonation. These, together with tempo and rhythm, link the unitary phonetic events (phonemes) of consonant, syllable, and fricative into the linguistically-complete words which symbolically represent, through verb and noun, both the world of action and things about us, and also our emotions (‘affect’) generated within.

The fundamental importance of prosody in relation to human speech and song, where the timing of stress within a word can determine its linguistic function as noun or verb, is well expressed in ‘office psalmody’. There each syllable is represented by a single or sustained note as in Dom in nus vo bis cum, and it is only the entire tonal progression of notes and intervals within this simple vocal line which conjoins the phonemes into linguistically meaningful words. The control over sound intensity needed to produce a beautiful, sustained tone at constant or smoothly-changing pitch and intensity in legato, or needed for stress, as in vocal attack, is wholly dependent on the dynamics of the pressure (sub-glottal pressure) that drives the expiratory airflow and that can be said to ‘power’ vocalization. The release of this pressure for the normal, vocally ‘clear’ attack (coup de glotte), or the mezza voce or ‘breath’ attack, requires precise timing of respiratory and laryngeal movements. If this timing fails, tones are slurred; if the vocal cords do not fully oppose a ‘breathy’ sound is produced. It is the timing of such skilled movements that is probably disrupted in the particular disturbance of vocalization (dysarthria) associated with lesions of the cerebellum, a structure intimately involved in motor ‘learning’ and now shown by imaging techniques to be active during vocalization. These and related topics, including the mechanical characteristics of breathing, bear also on the usually contentious matter of breath control in singing.

One surprising feature of the scientific analysis of breathing movements in singing is the finding that, except at high lung volume and at the onset of high notes at low intensity, the diaphragm is not actively involved, contrary to the emphasis given to the diaphragm's importance by voice teachers. Pressure measurements have shown that the diaphragm is mainly in a passive state, not undergoing active contraction through nervous control, so that it does not directly power sound production. However, it does serve mechanically to couple abdominal and ribcage motions, in which case abdominal muscle activity would relieve the ribcage from gravitational effects due to the mass of visceral organs. This frees the ribcage to contribute to the dynamics of subglottal pressure changes used in vocal stress. Nevertheless, the sensations generated in the chest wall during singing have traditionally been referred to the diaphragm, and this practice will doubtless continue.

When, through lifetime learning, habit, and experience, our movements become more and more automatic, the total sensory experience associated with them reduces to one of ‘effortless’ action that barely intrudes into consciousness. Breath and laryngeal control during speech and singing epitomize this state and when achieved set the cornerstone of supreme vocal performance, freeing the mind to dwell solely on artistic matters of interpretation — and it is these which eventually unite singer and audience.

— Tom Sears

Bibliography

  • Crocker, R. L. (1966). A history of musical style. Mcgraw-Hill, New York.
  • Deacon, T. (1997). The symbolic species. The Penguin Press, Allen Lane.
  • Sears, T. A. (1977). Some neural and mechanical aspects of singing. In Music and the brain, (ed. M. Critchley and R. A. Henson), pp. 78-94. Heineman, London

See also larynx; music and the body; voice.

 
Music Encyclopedia: Singing
Top
Home > Library > Entertainment & Arts > Music Encyclopedia

Although the art of singing belongs to the earliest forms of music-making, modern Western styles of singing are generally thought to go back only as far as the late 16th century. Accounts of singing earlier than that are few in number and difficult to interpret. Probably the high male voice was generally preferred (in many ecclesiastical contexts singing by women was forbidden), and in the Middle Ages the virtuoso cantor capable of brilliant singing played an important part in elaborating certain types of chant. By the 15th century, chant was probably performed in a tone - which now would be considered ‘oriental’ - of a rather nasal, perhaps harsh kind. The division of the voice into chest, throat and head registers was recognized as early as the 13th century; the head voice would now be described as falsetto. The rise of polyphony and the attendant expansion in compass led to a growing appreciation and use of different ranges of male voice, as seen particularly in the use of the bass and baritone compass in late 15th-century music.

Until the later 16th century, few singers seem to have been famous as soloists; the earliest singers whose names are known were the troubadours, trouvères and Minnesinger of the 11th to 13th centuries, working in a tradition where poet, composer and singer were usually the same person. The singer as interpreter of other people's music is virtually unknown until later. In the mid-16th century, treatises show a new emphasis on singing. Until this time, most secular music was suitable for male voices alone (including falsetto), but from the later 16th century female voices came increasingly into use - notably with the three ladies of Ferrara, whose virtuosity furthered the new vogue of writing for high, mostly female voices. The rise of monody in the late years of the century led to an increased interest in vocal elaboration and virtuosity, as described in Caccini's Le nuove musiche1601/2. The style emphasized free delivery of the text and the expressive use of dynamics, exclamations and portamentos. This led to the development of recitative. At the same time, the rise of the castrato and the invention of opera affected the art of singing. The castrato voice answered the need of Counter-Reformation composers for expressive, high voices in church music, and castratos were used in the Catholic church for the next three centuries. In opera, sopranos and castratos became the most prized singers during the Baroque era, with their unsurpassed eloquence in the new, flowing bel canto (‘beautiful singing’) style which developed in Italian opera in the middle of the 17th century; they also proved by far the best exponents of the brilliant ornamentation and divisions of the late Baroque and early Classical styles. Italian singers (like Italian opera itself) dominated music-making across the whole of Europe with the solitary exception of France, where a plainer singing style, with greater emphasis on verbal diction and less on tonal beauty, prevailed, and where castrato voices were never fully accepted; the French favoured male parts sung by the special high tenor known as the haute-contre.

At the beginning of the Romantic era larger voices, of greater sensuous beauty, came to be preferred, to meet the demands of the bigger opera houses and concert halls being built as public opera and concert-giving increased. Singers developed new types of resonance and dramatic expression. Acting ability was increasingly cultivated in some opera houses, notably the Opéra-Comique, Paris. Meanwhile, another class of singer developed, specializing in the intimacy of expression required for the lied repertory in Germany and its equivalents elsewhere (particularly in Russia and France). Examples are Schubert's friend J. M. Vogl and Brahms's friend Julius Stockhausen.

New ways of using the voice increased with the development of 20th-century idioms, notably Sprechgesang, a stylized mode of expression halfway between singing and speaking; it is associated with the Second Viennese School, and especially Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, though others had used it earlier. Special effects such as whispering, choral recitation, humming, glissando and shouting have been used extensively in choral music, somewhat less so in solo song. The development of the microphone, and the consequent ability to reach a large audience while singing quietly, has led to further developments in vocal technique, notably crooning. Other developments consequent on 20th-century technology include synthesizing the human voice; Stockhausen's Stimmung and Gesang der Jünglinge are notable examples of the use of electronically manipulated human voices. Conventional singing has, however, con- tinued in the 20th century, as opera houses have multiplied and the demand grown. The Wagner cult of the interwar years brought about an array of excellent Wagner interpreters; and the demand for and supply of interpreters of Italian opera have continued to run high. Notable specialists in other repertories include Shalyapin (music for a deep Russian bass), Maggie Teyte (French song) and Conchita Supervia (Spanish song). In recent years the male alto (countertenor) voice, largely abandoned except in English ecclesiastical music, underwent a revival, provoked chiefly by Alfred Deller; and there has been a trend towards the authentic performance, in matters of ornamentation, articulation and timbre, among interpreters of music up to Mozart's time. At the opposite extreme are the group of sopranos (such as Bethany Beardslee, Cathy Berberian and Jane Manning) who have specialized in singing avant-garde music and in perfecting its new techniques.

Non-Western and folk-singing embraces many techniques unknown in Western art music. These include such devices as yodelling, Japanese ‘split-tone’ methods and types of polyphonic singing (by one individual) used in South-east Asia.


 
Word Tutor: singing
Top
Home > Library > Literature & Language > Spelling & Usage
pronunciation

IN BRIEF: n. - Uttering words or sounds with musical inflections of the voice.

pronunciation My heart is singing for joy this morning! — Anne Sullivan

 
Wikipedia: Singing
Top
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
Not to be confused with any of the possible meanings of signing, or with singeing (for the act of slight scorching, see Singe).
Harry Belafonte singing, 1954
Patti Smith singing into a microphone, 2007

Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice, which is often contrasted with regular speech. A person who sings is called a singer or vocalist. Singers perform music known as songs that can either be sung a cappella (without accompaniment) or accompanied by musicians and instruments ranging from a single instrumentalist (a duet with a piano) to a full symphony orchestra or big band. Singing is often done in a group of other musicians, such as in a choir of singers with different voice ranges, or in an ensemble with instrumentalists, such as a rock group or baroque ensemble. Nearly anyone who can speak can sing, since in many respects singing is a form of sustained speech.

Singing can be informal and done for pleasure; for example, singing in the shower or karaoke; or it can be very formal, as in the case of singing during a religious ritual such as a Mass or professional singing performances done on stage or in a recording studio. Singing at a high amateur or professional level usually requires innate talent, instruction, and regular practice.[1] Professional singers usually build their careers around one specific musical genre, such as Classical or rock, they typically take voice training provided by a voice teacher or vocal coach throughout their career.

Contents

The human voice

Main article: Human voice
A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords.

In its physical aspect, singing has a well-defined technique that depends on the use of the lungs, which act as an air supply, or bellows; on the larynx, which acts as a reed or vibrator; on the chest and head cavities, which have the function of an amplifier, as the tube in a wind instrument; and on the tongue, which together with the palate, teeth, and lips articulate and impose consonants and vowels on the amplified sound. Though these four mechanisms function independently, they are nevertheless coordinated in the establishment of a vocal technique and are made to interact upon one another.[2] During passive breathing, air is inhaled with the diaphragm while exhalation occurs without any effort. Exhalation may be aided by the abdominal, internal intercostal and lower pelvic muscles. Inhalation is aided by use of external intercostals, scalenes and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The pitch is altered with the vocal cords. With the lips closed, this is called humming.

The sound of each individual's singing voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body. Humans have vocal folds which can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of the chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect the sound produced by an individual.

Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.[3] The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant; which has been shown to match particularly well to the most sensitive part of the ear's frequency range.[4][5]

Vocal registration

Main article: Vocal registration
Vocal registers
From highest to lowest register
Whistle
Falsetto
Modal
Vocal fry
This box: view • talk • edit

Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[6] The term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:[7]

  • A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers.
  • A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.
  • A phonatory process (phonation is the process of producing vocal sound by the vibration of the vocal folds that is in turn modified by the resonance of the vocal tract)
  • A certain vocal timbre or vocal "color"
  • A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.

In linguistics, a register language is a language which combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system. Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.[7]

Vocal resonation

Main article: Vocal resonation

Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.[7] There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.[8]

Chest voice and head voice

Main articles: Chest voice and Head voice

Chest voice and head voice are terms used within vocal music. The use of these terms varies widely within vocal pedagogical circles and there is currently no one consistent opinion among vocal music professionals in regards to these terms. Chest voice can be used in relation to a particular part of the vocal range or type of vocal register; a vocal resonance area; or a specific vocal timbre[7]. Head voice can be used in relation to a particular part of the vocal range or type of vocal register or a vocal resonance area[7].

History and development

The first recorded mention of the terms chest voice and head voice was around the 13th century, when it was distinguished from the "throat voice" (pectoris, guttoris, capitis — at this time it is likely that head voice referred to the falsetto register) by the writers Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome of Moravia.[9] The terms were later adopted within bel canto, the Italian opera singing method, where chest voice was identified as the lowest and head voice the highest of three vocal registers: the chest, passagio and head registers.[10] This approach is still taught by some vocal pedagogists today. Another current popular approach that is based on the bel canto model is to divide both men and women's voices into three registers. Men's voices are divided into "chest register", "head register", and "falsetto register" and woman's voices into "chest register", "middle register", and "head register". Such pedagogists teach that the head register is a vocal technique used in singing to describe the resonance felt in the singer's head.[11]

However as knowledge of human physiology has increased over the past two hundred years, so has the understanding of the physical process of singing and vocal production. As a result, many vocal pedagogists, such as Ralph Appelman at Indiana University and William Vennard at the University of Southern California, have redefined or even abandoned the use of the terms chest voice and head voice.[10] In particular, the use of the terms chest register and head register have become controversial since vocal registration is more commonly seen today as a product of laryngeal function that is unrelated to the physiology of the chest, lungs, and head. For this reason, many vocal pedagogists argue that it is meaningless to speak of registers being produced in the chest or head. They argue that the vibratory sensations which are felt in these areas are resonance phenomena and should be described in terms related to vocal resonance, not to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the terms chest voice and head voice over the term register. This view believes that the problems which people identify as register problems are really problems of resonance adjustment. It should be noted that this view is also in alignment with the views of other academic fields that study vocal registration including: speech pathology, phonetics, and linguistics. Although both methods are still in use, current vocal pedagogical practice tends to adopt the newer more scientific view. Also, some vocal pedagogists take ideas from both viewpoints.[7]

The contemporary use of the term chest voice often refers to a specific kind of vocal coloration or vocal timbre. In classical singing, its use is limited entirely to the lower part of the modal register or normal voice. Within other forms of singing, chest voice is often applied throughout the modal register. Chest timbre can add a wonderful array of sounds to a singer's vocal interpretive palette.[12] However, the use of overly strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can lead consequently to vocal deterioration.[13]

Classifying singing voices

Main articles: Voice type and Voice classification in non-classical music
Voice Type
Female voices
Soprano
Mezzo-soprano
Contralto

Male voices

Countertenor
Tenor
Baritone
Bass

In European classical music and opera, voices are treated like musical instruments. Composers who write vocal music must have an understanding of the skills, talents, and vocal properties of singers. Voice classification is the process by which human singing voices are evaluated and are thereby designated into voice types. These qualities include but are not limited to: vocal range, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal registration.[14] The science behind voice classification developed within European classical music and has been slow in adapting to more modern forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use within classical music including: the German Fach system and the choral music system among many others. No system is universally applied or accepted.[10]

However, most classical music systems acknowledge seven different major voice categories. Women are typically divided into three groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto. Men are usually divided into four groups: countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering voices of pre-pubescent children an eighth term, treble, can be applied. Within each of these major categories there are several sub-categories that identify specific vocal qualities like coloratura facility and vocal weight to differentiate between voices.[7]

It should be noted that within choral music, singers voices are divided solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices within each sex (SATB, or soprano, alto, tenor, and bass). As a result, the typical choral situation affords many opportunities for misclassification to occur.[7] Since most people have medium voices, they must be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present problems for the singer, but for most singers there are fewer dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.[15]

Within comtemporary forms of music (sometimes referred to as Contemporary Commercial Music), singers are classified by the style of music they sing, such as jazz, pop, blues, soul, country, folk, and rock styles. There is currently no authoritative voice classification system within non-classical music.[16] Attempts have been made to adopt classical voice type terms to other forms of singing but such attempts have been met with controversy. The development of voice categorizations were made with the understanding that the singer would be using classical vocal technique within a specified range using unamplified (no microphones) vocal production. Since contemporary musicians use different vocal techniques, microphones, and are not forced to fit into a specific vocal role, applying such terms as soprano, tenor, baritone, etc. can be misleading or even inaccurate.[17]

Vocal pedagogy

Main article: Vocal pedagogy
Ercole de' Roberti: Concert, c. 1490

Vocal pedagogy, is the study of the teaching of singing. The art and science of vocal pedagogy has a long history that began in Ancient Greece and continues to develop and change today. Professions that practice the art and science of vocal pedagogy include vocal coaches, choral directors, vocal music educators, opera directors, and other teachers of singing.

Vocal pedagogy concepts are a part of developing proper vocal technique. Typical areas of study include the following:[18][19]

  • Vocal styles: for Classical singers, this includes styles ranging from Leider to opera; for pop singers, styles can include "belted out" a blues ballads; for jazz singers, styles can include Swing ballads and scatting.

Vocal technique

Singing when done with proper vocal technique is an integrated and coordinated act that effectively coordinates the physical processes of singing. There are four physical processes involved in producing vocal sound: respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. These processes occur in the following sequence:

  • 1. Breath is taken
  • 2. Sound is initiated in the larynx
  • 3. The vocal resonators receive the sound and influence it
  • 4. The articulators shape the sound into recognizable units

Although these four processes are often considered separately when studied, in actual practice they merge into one coordinated function. With an effective singer or speaker, one should rarely be reminded of the process involved as their mind and body are so coordinated that one only perceives the resulting unified function. Many vocal problems result from a lack of coordination within this process.[17]

Since singing is a coordinated act, it is difficult to discuss any of the individual technical areas and processes without relating them to the others. For example, phonation only comes into perspective when it is connected with respiration; the articulators affect resonance; the resonators affect the vocal folds; the vocal folds affect breath control; and so forth. Vocal problems are often a result of a breakdown in one part of this coordinated process which causes voice teachers to frequently focus in intensively on one area of the process with their student until that issue is resolved. However, some areas of the art of singing are so much the result of coordinated functions that it is hard to discuss them under a traditional heading like phonation, resonation, articulation, or respiration.

Once the voice student has become aware of the physical processes that make up the act of singing and of how those processes function, the student begins the task of trying to coordinate them. Inevitably, students and teachers, will become more concerned with one area of the technique than another. The various processes may progress at different rates, with a resulting imbalance or lack of coordination. The areas of vocal technique which seem to depend most strongly on the student's ability to coordinate various functions are.[7]

  • 1. Extending the vocal range to its maximum potential
  • 2. Developing consistent vocal production with a consistent tone quality
  • 3. Developing flexibility and agility
  • 4. Achieving a balanced vibrato

Developing the singing voice

Singing is a skill that requires highly developed muscle reflexes. Singing does not require much muscle strength but it does require a high degree of muscle coordination. Individuals can develop their voices further through the careful and systematic practice of both songs and vocal exercises. Vocal pedagogists instruct their students to exercise their voices in an intelligent manner. Singers should be thinking constantly about the kind of sound they are making and the kind of sensations they are feeling while they are singing.[17] Vocal exercises have several purposes, including[7] warming up the voice; extending the vocal range; "lining up" the voice horizontally and vertically; and acquiring vocal techniques such as legato, staccato, control of dynamics, rapid figurations, learning to sing wide intervals comfortably, singing trills, singing melismas and correcting vocal faults.

Extending vocal range

An important goal of vocal development is to learn to sing to the natural limits of one's vocal range without any obvious or distracting changes of quality or technique. Vocal pedagogists teach that a singer can only achieve this goal when all of the physical processes involved in singing (such as laryngeal action, breath support, resonance adjustment, and articulatory movement) are effectively working together. Most vocal pedagogists believe in coordinating these processes by (1) establishing good vocal habits in the most comfortable tessitura of the voice, and then (2) slowly expanding the range.[3]

There are three factors that significantly affect the ability to sing higher or lower:

  1. The energy factor — "energy" has several connotations. It refers to the total response of the body to the making of sound; to a dynamic relationship between the breathing-in muscles and the breathing-out muscles known as the breath support mechanism; to the amount of breath pressure delivered to the vocal folds and their resistance to that pressure; and to the dynamic level of the sound.
  2. The space factor — "space" refers to the size of the inside of the mouth and the position of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking, a singer's mouth should be opened wider the higher he or she sings. The internal space or position of the soft palate and larynx can be widened by relaxing the throat. Vocal pedagogists describe this as feeling like the "beginning of a yawn".
  3. The depth factor — "depth" has two connotations. It refers to the actual physical sensations of depth in the body and vocal mechanism, and to mental concepts of depth that are related to tone quality.

McKinney says, "These three factors can be expressed in three basic rules: (1) As you sing higher, you must use more energy; as you sing lower, you must use less. (2) As you sing higher, you must use more space; as you sing lower, you must use less. (3) As you sing higher, you must use more depth; as you sing lower, you must use less."[7]

Posture

The singing process functions best when certain physical conditions of the body exist. The ability to move air in and out of the body freely and to obtain the needed quantity of air can be seriously affected by the posture of the various parts of the breathing mechanism. A sunken chest position will limit the capacity of the lungs, and a tense abdominal wall will inhibit the downward travel of the diaphragm. Good posture allows the breathing mechanism to fulfill its basic function efficiently without any undue expenditure of energy. Good posture also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the resonators as proper alignment prevents unnecessary tension in the body. Vocal pedagogists have also noted that when singers assume good posture it often provides them with a greater sense of self assurance and poise while performing. Audiences also tend to respond better to singers with good posture. Habitual good posture also ultimately improves the overall health of the body by enabling better blood circulation and preventing fatigue and stress on the body.[3]

There are eight components of the ideal singing posture:

  1. Feet slightly apart
  2. Knees bent
  3. Hips rotated forward
  4. Spine aligned
  5. Abdomen flat
  6. Chest comfortably raised
  7. Shoulders down and back
  8. Head straight ahead

Breathing and breath support

Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period, a breathing out period, and a resting or recovery period; these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within singing there are four stages of breathing:

  1. a breathing-in period (inhalation)
  2. a setting up controls period (suspension)
  3. a controlled exhalation period (phonation)
  4. a recovery period

When breathing, breathe in from the diaphragm lock the breath in place and control it as you sing.

These stages must be under conscious control by the singer until they become conditioned reflexes. Many singers abandon conscious controls before their reflexes are fully conditioned which ultimately leads to chronic vocal problems.[20]

Vibrato

Vibrato is used by singers (and many instrumentalists; for instance, string instruments that are played with a bow can produce vibrato tones) in which a sustained note wavers very quickly and consistently between a higher and a lower pitch, giving the note a slight quaver. Vibrato is the pulse or wave in a sustained tone. Vibrato occurs naturally, and is the result of proper breath support and a relaxed vocal apparatus. Some singers use vibrato as a means of expression. Many successful artists have built a career on deep, rich vibrato.

Vocal music

Main article: Vocal music

Vocal music is music performed by one or more singers, with or without non-vocal instrumental accompaniment, in which singing provides the main focus of the piece. Vocal music is probably the oldest form of music, since it does not require any instrument besides the human voice. All musical cultures have some form of vocal music and there are many long standing singing traditions throughout the world's cultures.

Music which employs singing but does not feature it prominently is generally considered as instrumental music. Vocal music typically features sung words called lyrics, although there are notable examples of vocal music that are performed using non-linguistic syllables or noises, sometimes as musical onomatopoeia. A short piece of vocal music with lyrics is broadly termed a song.

Genres of vocal music

Rock singer Ian Gillan performing live with Deep Purple in 2006.
Main article: Music genre

Vocal music is written in many different forms and styles which are often labeled within a particular genre of music. These genres include: Art music, Popular music, Traditional music, regional and national music, and fusions of those genres. Within these larger genres are many sub-genres. For example, popular music would encompass blues, jazz, country music, easy listening, hip hop, rock music, and several other genres. There may also be a sub-genre within a sub-genre such as vocalese and scat singing in jazz.

Popular and traditional music

In many modern pop musical groups, a lead singer performs the primary vocals or melody of a song, as opposed to a backing singer who sings backup vocals or the harmony of a song. Backing vocalists sing some, but usually not all, parts of the song often singing only in a song's refrain or humming in the background. An exception is five-part gospel a cappella music, where the lead is the highest of the five voices and sings a descant, and not the melody. Some artists may sing both lead and backing vocals on audio recordings by overlapping recorded vocal tracks.

Popular music includes a range of vocal styles. Hip-hop uses rapping, the rhythmic delivery of rhymes in a rythmic speech over a beat or without accompaniment, so this can not really be referred to as singing, as it is more a form of public speaking, such as the toasting from which rapping derives historically. Blues singing is based on the use of the blue notes–notes sung at a slightly lower pitch than that of the major scale for expressive purposes. In heavy metal and hardcore punk subgenres, vocal styles can include techniques such as screams, shouts, and unusual sounds such as the "death growl".

Rapper Busta Rhymes performs in Las Vegas.

Careers in singing

The salaries and working conditions for vocalists vary a great deal. While jobs in other music fields such as music education tend to be based on full-time, salaried positions, singing jobs tend to be based on contracts for individual shows or performances, or for a sequence of shows (e.g., a two-week series of performances of an opera or musical theater show). Since income from singing jobs can be unsteady, singers often supplement their performing income with other singing-related jobs, such as vocal coaching, voice lessons, or as working as a choral director in a church. Due to the large number of aspiring vocalists, it can be very competitive to get jobs in singing.

Church choir soloists can make from $30 to $500 per performance (all figures in US dollars). Performers in a community choral group can earn from $200–$3,000 yearly; members of a professional concert choral group can make $80 and up per performance. Singers who perform on radio or TV shows can make $75 and up per show on a local station and $125 and up per national network show (e.g., CBS or NBC). Jazz or pop singers who perform with dance bands or nightclub show groups can make $225 and up per week. Professional opera chorus singers can make from $350–$750 per week. Opera soloists, for which the number of job openings is very limited, can make from $350 to $20,000 per performance for the most elite performers. Classical concert soloists, for which the number of job openings is very limited, have approximate earnings of $350 per performance and up.[21]

Aspiring singers and vocalists must have musical talent and skill, an excellent voice, the ability to work with people, and a sense of showmanship and drama. Additionally, singers need to have the ambition and drive to continually study and improve,[21] because the process of studying singing does not end after an initial diploma or degree is finished-even decades after finishing their initial training, professional singers continue to seek out vocal coaching to hone their skills, extend their range, and learn new styles.As well, aspiring singers need to gain specialized skills in the vocal techniques used to interpret songs, learn about the vocal liturature from their chosen style of music, and gain skills in choral music techniques, sight singing and memorizing songs, and basic skills at the piano, to aid in learning new songs and in ear training or vocal exercises. In Classical singing and in some other genres, a knowledge of foreign languages such as French, Italian, German, or other languages, is needed. Prior to college or university training, aspiring singers should learn to read music, study basic piano, and gain experience with singing, both in choirs and in solo settings.

College or university degrees are "not always required but the equivalent training is usually necessary".[21] Post-secondary training in singing is available for both Classical and non-Classical singers. In the Classical stream, singing can be studied at conservatories and university music programs; credentials that are available range from diplomas and Bachelor's degrees to Master's degrees and the Doctor of Musical Arts. In popular and jazz styles, college and university degrees are also available, though there are fewer programs.

Once aspiring vocalists have completed their professional training, they must then take steps to market themselves to buyers of vocal talent. Depending on the style of vocal music that a person has trained in, the "talent buyers" that they seek out may be record company A&R representatives, opera or musical theater directors, choir directors, nightclub managers, or concert promoters. In addition preparing a resume or CV listing their training and performance experience, singers typically prepare a promotional kit that includes professionally-taken photographs (head shots); a CD or DVD with excerpts of vocal performances; and copies of reviews from music critics or journalists. Some singers hire an agent or manager to help them to seek out engagements and other performance opportunities; the agent or manager is often paid by receiving a percentage of the fees that the singer gets from performing onstage.

Health effects

Some scientists believe that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.[22] However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.[23] Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.[24] An multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).[25]

See also

References

  1. ^ Falkner, Keith, ed (1983). Voice. Yehudi Menuhin music guides. London: MacDonald Young. pp. 26. ISBN 035609099X. OCLC 10418423. 
  2. ^ "Singing". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/545880/singing. 
  3. ^ a b c Vennard, William (1967). Singing: the mechanism and the technic. New York: Carl Fischer. ISBN 978-0825800559. OCLC 248006248. 
  4. ^ Hunter, Eric J; Titze, Ingo R (2004). "Overlap of hearing and voicing ranges in singing." (PDF). J Singing 61 (4): 387–392. http://web.ku.edu/~cmed/923/Hunter1.pdf. 
  5. ^ Hunter, Eric J; Švec, Jan G; Titze, Ingo R (December 2006). "Comparison of the produced and perceived voice range profiles in untrained and trained classical singers". J Voice 20 (4): 513–526. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2005.08.009. PMID 16325373. 
  6. ^ Large, John W (February/March 1972). "Towards an integrated physiologic-acoustic theory of vocal registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 30–35. ISSN 0884-8106. OCLC 16072337. 
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k McKinney, James C (1994). The diagnosis and correction of vocal faults. Nashville, Tennessee: Genovex Music Group. pp. 213. ISBN 1565939409. OCLC 30786430. 
  8. ^ Greene, Margaret; Mathieson, Lesley (2001). The voice and its disorders (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 1861561961. OCLC 47831173. 
  9. ^ Grove, George; Sadie, Stanley, eds (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music & musicians. 6. Macmillan. ISBN 1561591742. OCLC 191123244. 
  10. ^ a b c Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A history of vocal pedagogy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0802086143. OCLC 53795639. 
  11. ^ Clippinger, David Alva (1917). The head voice and other problems: Practical talks on singing. Oliver Ditson. p. 12.  Singing at Project Gutenberg
  12. ^ Miller, Richard (2004). Solutions for singers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 286. ISBN 0195160053. OCLC 51258100. 
  13. ^ Warrack, John Hamilton; West, Ewan (1992). The Oxford dictionary of opera. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198691645. OCLC 25409395. 
  14. ^ Shewan, Robert (January/February 1979). "Voice classification: An examination of methodology". The NATS Bulletin 35 (3): 17–27. ISSN 0884-8106. OCLC 16072337. 
  15. ^ Smith, Brenda; Sataloff, Robert Thayer (2005). Choral pedagogy. San Diego, California: Plural Publishing. ISBN 1597560436. OCLC 64198260. 
  16. ^ Peckham, Anne (2005). Vocal workouts for the contemporary singer. Boston: Berklee Press. pp. 117. ISBN 0876390475. OCLC 60826564. 
  17. ^ a b c Appelman, Dudley Ralph (1986). The science of vocal pedagogy: theory and application. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 434. ISBN 0253351103. OCLC 13083085. 
  18. ^ Titze Ingo R (2008). "The human instrument". Scientific American 298 (1): 94–101. PMID 18225701. 
  19. ^ Titze Ingo R (1994). Principles of voice production. Prentice Hall. pp. 354. ISBN 013717893X. http://ncvs.org/bookshop/index.html. 
  20. ^ Sundberg Johan (January/February 1993). "Breathing behavior during singing". The NATS Journal 49: 2–9, 49–51. ISSN 0884-8106. OCLC 16072337. 
  21. ^ a b c Music Educators' National Committee "Careers in Music" (2001) http://www.menc.org
  22. ^ Clift, SM; Hancox, G (2001). "The perceived benefits of singing". The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 121 (4): 248–256. doi:10.1177/146642400112100409. 
  23. ^ Heller, Stanley S; Hicks, William R; Root, Walter S (1960). "Lung volumes of singers". J Appl Physiol 15 (1): 40–42. PMID 14400875. 
  24. ^ Kreutz, Gunter; Bongard, Stephan; Rohrmann, Sonja; Hodapp, Volker; Grebe, Dorothee (December 2004). "Effects of choir singing or listening on secretory immunoglobulin A, cortisol, and emotional state". Journal of Behavioral Medicine 27 (6): 623–635. doi:10.1007/s10865-004-0006-9. 
  25. ^ Mick, Hayley (19 June 2009). "Doctor's prescription: 2 arias + a chorus". The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health/doctors-prescription-2-arias-a-chorus/article1186101/. 

External links

Sister project Look up vocal or singing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Sister project Look up singing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Sister project Wikibooks has more on the topic of

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

 
 

 

Copyrights:

Sci-Tech Dictionary. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. Copyright © 2003, 1994, 1989, 1984, 1978, 1976, 1974 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.  Read more
World of the Body. The Oxford Companion to the Body. Copyright © 2001, 2003 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.  Read more
Music Encyclopedia. The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music. Copyright © 1994 by Oxford University Press, Inc.. All rights reserved.  Read more
Word Tutor. Copyright © 2004-present by eSpindle Learning, a 501(c) nonprofit organization. All rights reserved.
eSpindle provides personalized spelling and vocabulary tutoring online; free trial.  Read more
Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Singing".  Read more

Related answers
» More
 
Answer these
» More